UNTING CHURCH: A CONTEMPORARY UNITY IN AUSTRALIAN CALVINISM David W. Kim Australian National University ABSTRACT The indigenous people had inhabited the Australian continent for tens of thousands of years, but the history of modern Australia began with the British settlers in 1788. When the convicts and freemen started to arrive in the Oceania region, the various denominations of Calvinism were transmitted into the colonial land of Great Britain in the nineteenth century. The Presbyterianism that was based on the Church of Scotland and European Reformed heritages was founded in the 1820s. The Congregational Church was established by Charles Price in New South Wales in 1833. The Wesleyan Methodist Church emerged in the region of Australasia (including New Zealand) in 1875. Each Calvinistic tradition denominationally witnessed its prosperity of unity at the turn of the twentieth century, but there was an interdenominational unity movement through the so-called, the Uniting Church in the 1970s. Many local churches voluntarily re-joined the new religious organization from the Calvinistic denominations. Then, who are the Uniting Church? What do they believe and pursue? How are they innovative in comparison with the traditional churches? What kind of conflict or confusion exists between the old ones and the new one? This paper explores the religious figures of the new uniting movement in relation to the context of EuroBritish Calvinism. The social liberalism of the Uniting Church is particularly regarded to depict an authentic identity of Australian Calvinism in the late twentieth century. Key Words: Uniting Church, Australian Calvinism, Unity, Basis of Union, Mission. 1 As the nation of Australia was established by the colonial influence of the second British Empire (1783–1815), 1 the Christian history initiated with the arrival of the First Fleet of British convicts in 1788. The indigenous people had already practiced their mystical religions for thousands of years,2 but the new religious movement of Christianity settled down well in the new continent if one sees the fact that most of the Anglo-Celtic population (96.1%) were affiliated at the time of the Federation of Australia in 1901.3 The main denominations were the Anglican Church (formerly known as the Church of England: 40%), the Roman Catholic Church (22.1%), and a broad range of Calvinistic movements (34%).4 The Anglican Church launched with Richard Johnson of the Church of England when the First Fleet was sent to New South Wales in 1787.5 Thomas Scott was appointed Archdeacon of Australia under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Calcutta in 1825. William Grant Broughton, who succeeded Scott in 1829, was consecrated the first (and only) Bishop of Australia. 6 The Church of England clergy worked closely with the governors until losing their legal privileges in the colony of New South Wales in 1836. Alternatively, the first Catholic priest colonists arrived as convicts in 1800. James Harold, James Dixon, and Peter O’Neill had been convicted of ‘complicity’ in the Irish 1798 Rebellion. 7 The Catholic mission was not legally allowed until 1818, but the British 1 The period of the British Empire often is divined as the First British Empire (1583–1783), Second British Empire (1783–1815), Britain’s imperial century (1815–1914), World Wars (1914–1945), Decolonisation, and Decline (1945–1997). See for more details, “British Empire,” accessed on 20/02/2015, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ British_Empire# Rise_of_the_ Second_British_Empire_.281783.E2.80.931815. 29. 2 “The word indigenous refers to anything that is native to a particular geographical region. This includes people, cultures, languages, or species of plants or animals. The Aborigines of Australia, for example, are an indigenous people, in contrast to the European settlers who arrived on the continent long after.” See, “Indigenous Religions,” accessed on 13/02/2015, http://www.encyclopedia.com/article-1G2-3448400023/ indigenous-religions.html. 3 “Christianity in Australia,” accessed on 05/03/2015, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_Australia. 4 “Religion in Australia,” accessed on 13/02/2015, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_Australia. 5 Sang-gu Lee, “The Theology of the Presbyterian Church of Australia,” Korean Studies in Historical Theology 5 (2003), 132-133. 6 Gabriel Hebert, “The Uniting Church,” Scottish Journal of Theology 17, 1 (1964), 21-24. 7 “Australia’s first Catholic Mass, 15 May 1803,” accessed on 05/03/2015, https://atributetoaustralianchristians. wordpress.com/2013/01/ 08/australias-first-catholic-mass-15-may-1803/. 2 government afterward endorsed the English Benedictines to lead the early church in the colony. The foundation stone for the first St Mary’s Cathedral in Sydney was laid in 1821 by Governor Lachlan Macquarie.8 Then, what about the history of the Calvinistic movements in Australia? How did they launch their initial movement in the new land? Was there any religious campaign for unity? If so, what was the result? How could the Australian Calvinism be expressed in the contemporary era? CALVINISTIC MOVEMENT IN MODERN AUSTRALIA When there were no more religious privileges given to the State religion of the Anglican Church in 1836, various ‘dissenting churches (non-state Protestant churches)’ were merged with the population of the European immigrants. The denominations of the Baptist Church (1830s), Lutheran Church (1838), Wesleyan Methodist Church (1875), Salvation Army (1880), Seventh-day Adventist (1886), Eastern Orthodox Church (1920s), and the Pentecostal movement (1909) pioneered their movement around the New South Wales colony. The three main groupings of Calvinism also were seen in the nineteenth century: the Congregational Church, Presbyterian Church, and (Calvinistic) Methodist Church. They individually spread their belief and teachings under the supervision of the British headquarters. The development of Calvinistic theology was not the major issue for them in the new colony, but liberalism and independence were the social ideology of the non-state religions because of the unfair conditions of the colonial policy.9 The British congregational church, first, reached Australia at the closing years of the eighteenth century along with the Anglican Church (Church of England). As the London 8 “St Mary’s Cathedral, Sydney,” accessed on 05/03/2015, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_ Mary %27s_ Cathedral,_Sydney. 9 The colonial government mainly supported the Church of England for they were the State religion. 3 Missionary Society (LMS) that was established by Congregationalists and others, launched a mission to the Pacific, Sydney became the principal base of the missionary endeavour and in due course, ministers for settled congregations were sent by the Colonial Missionary Society (CMS). 10 The Sydney Pitt Street congregational church was the first permanent congregational church, being gathered in 1832. 11 The congregationalism also founded regional churches in Hobart (1830), Adelaide (1837), Melbourne (1838), and Western Australia (1845) among urban and middle class people, prominently coming from commerce, journalism, and politics in the case of South Australia.12 Edward Griffith from Wales came out to pastor a little congregation at Ipswich, Queensland. He was the first of many ministers sent out by the Colonial Missionary Society of London in the 1840s.13 The congregational churches were developed as the Congregational Union of Australia and New Zealand (CUANZ) from the Congregational Unions of each colony in 1888. The CUANZ then was replaced by the Congregational Union of Australia (CUA) in 1960, which included over 300 congregations.14 Second, the Presbyterian Church, as a dissenter with Congregationalists, owes their origins to John Knox (1514-1572) of Scotland, who desired to establish churches governed 10 The object of the CMS was “promoting Evangelical religion among British or other European settlers in the Colonies and Dependencies of Great Britain and in other parts of the world, in accordance with the doctrine and discipline of Independent or Congregational Churches.” A.C. Nelson (ed.), History of the Effective Establishment of Congregationalism in the Australian Colonies and New Zealand (Hobart, 1930), 34. “The Queensland Congregational Fellowship,” accessed on 14/02/2015, http://qcongfell.org.au/historypage.html. 11 “Congregational church,” accessed on 14/02/2015, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregational_church. 12 Geoffrey L. Barnes, “Liberalism and the Decline of Evangelical Theology in the Congregational Churches of Australia,” Church Heritage 10, 1 (1997), 5-7. M. Spencer, “the Congregational Church in Western Australia, 1845-1925,” Western Congregationalist 1906-1914. See Wendy Snook, “The Development of the Congregational Church in Western Australia, 1829-1914: Part I,” Church Heritage (1998), 231-251. 13 Griffith’s son Samuel Griffith became State Premier and first Chief Justice of Australia. “A Brief History (of Congregationalism),” accessed on 14/02/2015, http://cfanz.org.au/cfanz.org.au/A_Brief_History.html. 14 The Fellowship of Congregational Churches (FCC) that is a conservative group was formed in 1977. The Fellowship of Congregational Churches strived to preserve the followings: 1) the Lordship of Christ over the local church; 2) the autonomy of each local church under Christ’s Lordship, and freedom from all external ecclesiastical control; 3) co-operation between churches of similar faith and order; and 4) commitment to the principles of our Puritan forefathers: purity of life, doctrine, worship, and church government. Walter Phillips, “Congregationalism,” in The Oxford Companion to Australian History, ed. Graeme Davison, John Hirst, and Stuart Macintyre (South Melbourne, New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 20-53. “Fellowship of Congregational Churches (FCC),” accessed on 14/02/2015, http://173.230.146.51/~fcccongo/about-us/whowe-are/. 4 by the elder system (elder, in Greek, is presbuteros, hence ‘Presbyterian’). The Scottish government affirmed the Scottish Confession of Faith in 1560, but it is the Westminster Confession of Faith (written in England in 1646) that provides the basis of Presbyterian belief.15 The Australian Presbyterian church predominantly has been related to the Scottish Presbyterian church (the Church of Scotland) and went through the difficult process of opposition, conflict, and unity.16 The casual services began in 1809 before the first ministers arrived in the 1820s, beginning at the Ebenezer church in New South Wales. The ministry of the Presbyterian Church included the activities of home missions, schools, and theological education.17 However, the various doctrine schisms within the so-called ‘Established Church of Scotland’ had reverberations in New South Wales and Victoria in relation to the colonial hierarchy of authority. J. D. Lang (1799-1878) who was the first ordained Presbyterian minister, eventually led the move to make the Free Presbyterian Church of Victoria (FPCV), following after the Free Church of Scotland (FCS) in the 1840s.18 Two other movements additionally appeared: the Presbyterian Church of Eastern Australia (PCEA) and the Reformed Presbyterian Church of Australia (RPCA). The Presbyterian Church of Eastern Australia (PCEA) began in Sydney in 1846 by three ministers and a ruling elder. Most of the early PCEA members were Highland Scots or conservative 15 James Cameron, Centenary History of the Presbyterian Church in New South Wales (Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1905), 2-4. “Calvinism: A Study of Denominations,” accessed on 13/02/2015, http://www.astudyof denominations.com/denominations/calvinism/#sthash.RPigchkv.dpuf. 16 Malcolm D. Prentis, “The Presbyterian Church of Australia 1901-1977: An Overview,” Church Heritage 15, 4 (2008): 232-243. 17 Cameron, Centenary History of the Presbyterian Church in New South Wales, 2-4. Malcolm Prentis, “Reformed Churches in Australia,” Church Heritage 16, 4 (2010), 243-246. Lee, “The Theology of the Presbyterian Church of Australia,” 131-158. Malcolm Prentis and Rowland Ward, “A Biographical Register of Presbyterian Ministers in Tasmania 1822-1901,” Church Heritage 9, 4 (1996), 227-249. 18 The Free Church of Scotland (1843-1900) originally was established in 1843 in Scotland, reformed from the established Church of Scotland in a schism known as the Disruption of 1843. C. A. White, the Challenge of the Years: a History of the Presbyterian Church of Australia in the State of New South Wales (Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1951), 314-316. See, “Free Church of Scotland (1843–1900),” accessed on 13/02/2015, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Free_Church_of_Scotland (1843%E2%80%931900). 5 Irish Presbyterians.19 The PCEA often was noted for its practice of exclusive psalmody. They maintained the older pre-1870 approach to public worship among Presbyterians in which the 150 psalms of the Word of God in metrical form exclusively were used without instrumental accompaniment.20 The Reformed Presbyterian Church that has its roots in the Covenanters of the 17th century (1690: Presbyterianism) in Scotland, endured great hardship and persecution because of their refusal to change their political beliefs.21 They appeared in several countries, such as Northern Ireland, Republic of Ireland, Scotland, France, United States of America, Canada, Japan, South Sudan, and Australia. 22 Among them, the Reformed Presbyterian Church of Australia (RPCA) launched in Geelong, Victoria, in 1858. A. M. Moore was ordained in Belfast and arrived in Melbourne in late December 1857 for the initial movement. The State bodies of the Presbyterian churches progressively united as the Presbyterian Church of Australia (PCA) in 1901 when the six colonial states of Great Brittan announced as the Commonwealth of Australia.23 The socioeconomic influence of the PCA members was obvious if Malcolm Prentis’ argument is correct24: Presbyterian men were over-represented in education, banking and finance, engineering, nursing (for the case of women) and shipping…, (but) were under-represented in amusements, hotel-work, labouring and amongst prisoners and mental patients (in 1901)… Presbyterians continued to be over-represented amongst managers, accountants and bankers, doctors, teachers and academics, farmers and graziers and underrepresented amongst prisoners, the unemployed and unskilled workers (by the 1960s). 19 Rowland S. Ward, The Presbyterian Church of Eastern Australia 1846-2013 (Melbourne: New Melbourne Press, 2014), 21-45 & 190-193. 20 The Scottish Psalter of 1650 was traditionally used in the PCEA. “Presbyterian Church of Eastern Australia,” accessed on 13/02/2015, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterian_Church_of_Eastern_ Australia. 21 “Reformed Presbyterian Church of Scotland,” accessed on 05/03/2015, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformed _Presbyterian_Church_ of_Scotland. 22 Prentis, “Reformed Churches in Australia,” 242-249. 23 Prentis, “The Presbyterian Church of Australia 1901-1977: An Overview,” 227-228. 24 Prentis, “The Presbyterian Church of Australia 1901-1977: An Overview,” 237. 6 The Aboriginal and foreign missions in the New Hebrides, Korea, and India, were developed with the strong support of the Presbyterian Women’s Missionary Union (PWMU). 25 Meanwhile, some Reformed people of Germany, Czech lands, France, South Africa, Dutch, and Hungary, after the Great Wars, immigrated to Australia. The Dutch reformed churches, according to Malcolm Prentis, became more conservative or Calvinistic than the mainstream Nederlandse Hervormde Kerk (NHK).26 When the social communist seized the society, many members (approximately, 13,000) of the Hungarian reformed churches also relocated to Australia in 1961.27 Many Hungarian reformed people and ministers over the years joined the Presbyterian Church of Australia (PCA), even though the Melbourne Hungarian congregation opted out of the PCA to form the Hungarian Reformed Church of Australia (Ausztraliài Magyar Reformàtus Egyhàz).28 Third, there was the Methodist movement that was inspired by the life and teachings of John Wesley, George Whitefield, and Charles Wesley. The Methodists taught that Christ died for all of humanity, thus, everyone is entitled to God’s grace and protection. The view of Arminianism denies that God has preordained an elect number of people to eternal bliss.29 Among them, George Whitefield, Howell Harris, Daniel Rowland, Selina Hastings, and Countess of Huntingdon supported Calvinism as Calvinistic Methodists, who formed the Presbyterian Church of Wales and claiming to be the only denomination of the Presbyterian order in Wales.30 The Constitution of the denomination (called in Welsh, Hen Gorff, i.e. the 25 Prentis, “The Presbyterian Church of Australia 1901-1977: An Overview,” 229-243. Prentis, “Reformed Churches in Australia,” 242-245. Lee, “The Theology of the Presbyterian Church of Australia,” 147-151. 27 There were 55,000 Hungarian immigrants in Australia in 1961. Prentis, “Reformed Churches in Australia,” 244-245. 28 Many Hungarian people who joined the PCA eventually re-jointed to the new Australia church, called ‘Uniting Church’ in 1977. Prentis, “Reformed Churches in Australia,” 246-247. 29 Roger E. Olson, Arminian Theology: Myths and Realities (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2009), 33. 30 Arnold A. Dallimore, George Whitefield: The Life and Times of the Great Evangelist of the EighteenthCentury Revival (Volume I) (Edinburgh or Carlisle: Banner of Truth Trust, 1970). Dallimore, George Whitefield: The Life and Times of the Great Evangelist of the Eighteenth-Century Revival II (Edinburgh or Carlisle: Banner of Truth Trust, 1980). “Calvinistic Methodists,” accessed on 16/02/2015, http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Calvinistic_Methodists. 26 7 ‘Old Body’) is a mixture of Presbyterianism and Congregationalism. The Methodist members of the London Missionary Society (LMS) visited the Pacific in 1796 and the first Methodist meeting was held in Sydney in 1812.31 The Calvinistic Methodist tradition was launched by the efforts of Johnson, Marsden, and Charles Barff in Parramatta, New South Wales.32 Eric Clancy divides the history of Wesleyan Methodists into four periods: 1) the foundation era (1812-1836); 2) the launch of the Wesleyan mission (1836-1854); 3) the regional development of the movement (1855-1873); 4) the growth and maturity (1874-1901). 33 During the period the Wesleyans, with the Primitives, became involved in industrial and parliamentary politics in order to promote their politics of social welfare34: It is noteworthy that among the labour representatives recently returned to our own Parliament there are several gentlemen who graduated for the position in the school of prophets as local preachers amongst ourselves. Various branches of Methodism merged in the 20 years from 1881, with a union of all groups except the Lay Methodists. The four Methodist bodies - the Wesleyan Methodist Church, the Primitive Methodists, the Bible Christians, and the United Methodist Free Churches formed a unity body called ‘the Methodist Church of Australasia’ in 1902. 35 The new movement 31 Neil Gunson, “Ebenezer in the Context of the Calvinistic Methodist Movement in Early New South Wales,” Church Heritage 16, 1 (2009), 9-10. 32 Gunson, “Ebenezer in the Context of the Calvinistic Methodist Movement in Early New South Wales,” 11-12. 33 James Colwell, The Illustrated History of Methodism. Australia 1812-1855: New South Wales and Polynesia 1856 to 1902 (Sydney: William Brooks, 1904), 273-280. Eric G. Clancy, “A Biographical Register of Wesleyan Methodist Ministers in New South Wales 1855-1874,” Church Heritage 10, 1 (1997), 35-58. Eric G. Clancy, “Wesleyan Prodigy: Growth of the New South Wales Wesleyan Methodist Church, 1836-1873,” Church Heritage 13, 2 (2000), 253-276. 34 Eric Clancy, “Methodism in the New South Wales Labour Party in the Early 1890’s,” Church Heritage 7, 1 (1991), 18. 35 Lake was sent to preach and help establish Bible Christianity in Queensland, Australia in 1865 and in 1870 she was invited by Sir Samuel Way and Dr Allan Campbell to preach at Bible Christian Churches in Adelaide, South Australia. Helen Jones, In Her Own Name: Women in South Australian History (Adelaide: Wakefield Press, 1986). The United Methodist Free Churches, as an English nonconformist community itself, was formed in 1857 by the amalgamation of the Wesleyan Association (which had, in 1836, largely absorbed the Protestant Methodists of 1828) and the Wesleyan Reformers (dating from 1849, when a number of Wesleyan Methodist ministers were expelled on a charge of insubordination). R. L. Broome, Treasure in Earthen Vessels: Protestant Christianity in New South Wales Society, 1900-1914 (St Lucia, Old: University of Queensland 8 largely followed the policy of the Wesleyan Methodist Church. In 1945, Kingsley Ridgway offered himself as a Melbourne-based ‘field representative’ for a possible Australian branch of the Wesleyan Methodist Church of America. The Wesleyan Methodist Church of Australia was founded on his work. 36 Another new Methodist denomination in Australia was the Chinese Methodist Church in Australia. This Asian denomination was unique, as it was started by members of the Methodist churches in Malaysia and Singapore who were either sent to Australia or emigrated themselves.37 Thus, the Australian Calvinism predominantly originated from the individual denominations of the congregational church, the Presbyterian Church, and Methodist Church, located in England, Wales, Scotland, and Europe. When the British colonies established the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901, the political phenomenon of harmony also motivated many protestant movements in terms of denominational unity. 38 Then, what happened among the Australian Calvinist churches afterward? Was there any more religious development or prosperity? If there was, how did it happen? How did the emergence of a new movement affect the contemporary society of Australia? UNITING CHURCH: A UNITY MOVEMENT Australia was not the only nation experiencing religious oneness. There were already union movements in colonial Canada and South India in the early era of the twentieth century, such as the United Church of Canada (UCC) and the United Church of South India (UCSI). The Press, 1980), 118-123. “United Methodist Free Churches,” accessed on 16/02/2015, http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/United_ Methodist_Free_Churches. Holliday Bickerstaffe Kendall, The origin and history of the Primitive Methodist Church (London: Robert Bryant, 1864). Robert Humphreys, and Rowland Ward, Religious Bodies in Australia (Melbourne: Robert Humphreys and Rowland Ward, 1986), 45. 36 Glen O’Brien, Kingsley Ridgway: Pioneer with a Passion (Melbourne: Wesleyan Methodist Church, 1996). 37 It is found in all the major cities of Australia and is showing growth. 38 Margaret Reeson, “Trash or Treasure: The Joys of the Chase Amongst Uniting Church Archives,” Church Heritage 16, 4 (2010), 226-232. 9 United Church of Canada was founded in 1925 as the largest protestant Christian denomination in Canada and the second largest Canadian Christian denomination after the Roman Catholic Church. 39 The South India United Church (SIUC) was a union of the Congregationalists and the Presbyterians (as well as the Reformed tradition) in 1925, even though the Calvinistic organization eventually was absorbed into the Church of South India (CSI), with the southern Anglican diocese of the Church of India, Burma, Ceylon, and the Methodist Church in South India in 1947.40 Whether it is true or not that the colonial unity movement of the Great Britain affected the Australian Church, 41 the Calvinistic denominations of Australia launched an interdenominational unity movement across the commonwealth nation.42 As the initial action, Arthur Allen (1902-1958) found the Calvinistic Society of Australia (CSA) in 1939, in cooperation with Gillies, W.H. Leembruggen (Methodist and Bible Union), F. Maxwell Bradshaw (1910-1992), J. C. Jamieson (P18721955), and Aeneas Macdonald (1880-1946). They began to publish the Reformed Theological Review (RTR) in 1942.43 Yet, it was not big enough to convict the whole society of Australia during World War II. The decline of membership in all Australian mainline churches, as well as the challenge of a Billy Graham campaign, motivated church union in the 1950s again. The federal assemblies of each denomination eventually set up a Joint Commission of Church Union in 1959. The Joint Commission, therefore, produced two preliminary reports on doctrine (1959) and policy 39 The United Church was a merger of four Protestant denominations: the Methodist Church of Canada, the Congregational Union of Ontario and Quebec, two-thirds of the congregations of the Presbyterian Church in Canada, and the Association of Local Union Churches, a predominantly prairie-based movement. The Canadian Conference of the Evangelical United Brethren Church joined the United Church of Canada on 1 January 1968. “United Church of Canada,” accessed 16/02/2015, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Church _of_Canada. 40 The South India United Church, The South India United Church: Minutes of The Tenth General Assembly Salem, September 26-29, 1925 (Pasumalai, American Mission Nenox Press, 1926). 41 Hebert, “The Uniting Church,” 21-24. 42 Prentis, “The Presbyterian Church of Australia 1901-1977: An Overview,” 239-243. 43 Rowland S. Ward, “Aspects of the Revival of Calvinism in Australia, 1938-1978,” Church Heritage 16, 2 (2009), 99-117. 10 (1963) to encourage discussion and education.44 The names of ‘the United Churches of Christ,’ ‘the Reformed Church of Australia,’ ‘the Evangelical Church of Australia,’ and ‘Reformed and Evangelical (Church of Australia) were considered,45 but the name of ‘the Uniting Church of Australia’ was newly created as the result of a uniting movement in 1977. It became the third-largest religious organization. The date of Breward shows that the members of the Congregational Church (75 %: 260 congregations), of the Methodist Church (83%), and of the Presbyterian Church (75%) strongly supported the interdenominational unity movement. 46 The vision of the Uniting Church was superior to the cases of Canada and South India if one considers the meaning of the church name (‘uniting’ instead of ‘united’). The choice of the word uniting reflects a desire for a progressive joining with other protestant denominations: “there is a sense of movement and change within the Uniting Church. (They) are essential components of history. Pilgrim imagery means that the Uniting Church is not a static church: its core is not its clergy or its sacraments, but a pilgrim people.” 47 William W. Emilsen interpreted the uniqueness of the term and its meaning in the perspective that the Uniting Church of Australia (UCA) is “the first Australian Church around Church Union.”48 J. Davis McCaughey, who was the first president of the national assembly, also argued that the Uniting church was ready for the ideological innovation of the Calvinistic unity: There is an exhilaration and a loneliness about this. The reader ought to catch his breath. It would have been easier to say, ‘we shall go forward loyal to the best of our traditions as Calvinists and Wesleyans… And … we would neglect what Calvin and Wesley have 44 Prentis, “The Presbyterian Church of Australia 1901-1977: An Overview,” 239-243. Joan Mansfield, “An Outline History of the Uniting Church Record and Historical Society NSW/ACT,” Church Heritage 17, 1 (2011), 75-83. 45 A. H. Wood, The Uniting Church of Australia (Melbourne: The Methodist Publishing House, 1961), 39-45. 46 The preliminary leadership organization of the Uniting Church also approached the head of the Lutheran Church in 1970-80, even though the result was not positive on the various issues of doctrine (law and gospel) and policy. Ian Breward, A History of the Australian Churches (St Leonards, NSW: Allen & Unwin, 1993), 180. Jeffrey G. Silcock, “A Journey of Twenty Years: Lutheran and Uniting Church Conversations,” Lutheran Theological Journal 34, 1 (2000), 27-40. Lee, “The Theology of the Presbyterian Church of Australia,” 149151. 47 Paragraph 18, Basis of Union, 1992. William W. Emilsen, “Reflections on Uniting Church History,” Church Heritage 18, 4 (2014), 247. 48 Emilsen, “Reflections on Uniting Church History,” 243. 11 to teach us to our peril. But, the beginning of the Basis of Union reminds us that our loyalty is not to them but to Christ.49 FOUNDATIONAL DOCTRINE The new Calvinistic church that has approximately 2,800 congregations, 51 presbyteries, and seven synods, are based on the Apostles’ Creeds and Nicene Creeds. The Australian church also takes head of ‘the Reformation Witness’ from various ‘confessions of faith,’ such as ‘the Scots Confession of Faith (Presbyterianism: 1560),’ ‘the Heidelberg Catechism (Reformed Christians: 1563),’ ‘the Westminster Confession of Faith (the Anglican Communion and Presbyterianism: 1647),’ ‘the Savoy Declaration (Congregational Church: 1658),’ and of the messages of John Wesley in his Forty-four Sermons (Methodist Church: 1793). The Basis of Union (BU) that was created as the basic doctrine of the movement in 1971 by the cooperated leadership, was applied to bring all aspects of these theological writings and traditions in order to set up the new church’s way of living and being.50 According to Norman Young, the Uniting Church’s Basis of Union supports the view that “unity was already the gift of God to the Church, that the faith of the Church has priority over its ordering, and that authority is located supremely in Jesus Christ as the Church’s Lord.” 51 The concept of this unity was comprehended as “not to be pursued as a merely human work, but as making real that unity which was already the gift of God.”52 The Basis of Union also affirms “the Uniting Church lives and works within the faith and unity of the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church.”53 49 J. Davis McCaughey, Commentary on the Basis of Union of the Uniting Church in Australia (Melbourne: Uniting Church Press, 1980), 8. 50 Glen O’Brien, “John Wesley, the Uniting Church, and the Authority of Scripture,” Pacifica 27, 2 (2014), 170183. 51 Norman Young, “The Theological Convictions of the Basis of Union of the Uniting Church,” Pacifica 25 (2012): 288. 52 M. Owen, Back to Basics (Melbourne: Uniting Church Press: 1996), 55. Young, “The Theological Convictions of the Basis of Union of the Uniting Church,” 291. 53 Young, “The Theological Convictions of the Basis of Union of the Uniting Church,” 292. 12 The Uniting Church acknowledges the visual acts of baptism and the Lord’s Supper (the Holy Communion). However, they were embroiled in a ‘second baptism’ controversy where the people who received an infant baptism wish to be re-baptised when they are faithful adults. 54 Unlike the tradition of the adult baptism, the infant baptism was dissimilarly comprehended between the members of the urban and rural congregations. As a result, there were some splits by the theological issue, but the new Calvinistic church still included the infant baptism ritual as the responsibility of the church: “children who are presented for baptism and for whose instruction and nourishment in the faith the Church takes responsibility.” 55 As the Uniting church recognizes ‘the informed faith’ of ‘scholarly interpreters,’ the role of (biblical) scholars also is considered as a character of God’s witness and service among evangelist, prophet, and martyr.56 Thus, the range of the UCA theology is broad, reflecting the origins of the Methodist, Presbyterian, and Congregational church and its commitment to ecumenism. The liberal theology is attested in the practices of the commitment to social justice.57 LEADERSHIP The religious organization of the Uniting Church is governed by a series of interrelated councils, each of which has its tasks and responsibilities in relation both to the church and the world: congregation, elder’s or leader’s meeting, presbytery (district council composed of ministers, elders/leaders, and other church members appointed), synod (regional council), and assembly (national council). The new Australian church ordains those who believe God has called to be ministers of the Word and deacons. The system of female ministers was adopted 54 Harry Herbert, “In All Things Unity?,” National Outlook (1994), 16-17. Paragraph 7, Basis of Union, 1992. 56 Paragraph 11, Basis of Union, 1992. 57 See, the following section of social justice. “The Uniting Church of Australia,” accessed on 19/02/2015, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Uniting_Church_in_Australia. 55 13 since its foundation (1977).58 There were 101 ordinated female ministers (4.16 %) and 2323 male ministers in 1985. 59 Yet, the ordination issue of leadership, as mentioned by Harry Herbert, was a critical area of controversy. The Uniting Church inherited the style of Methodist and Presbyterian churches for the order of deaconess, even though Congregationalism did not have the tradition of women’s ordination. 60 The role of deaconesses was not recommended as permanent, but as a renewal of the diaconate: “the national Assembly accepted a proposal in 1991 that the Uniting Church would have one ordination and that ordained persons would be accredited as either ministers of the word or deacons.”61 The lay people believed that God has called them to be elders, lay preachers, youth workers, and community ministers. In particular, the new church has the role of lay preachers who are ordinated as deacons: “(the church) will seek to recognise those endowed with the gift of the Spirit for this task, will provide for their training, and will gladly wait upon that fuller understanding of the obedience of Christians which should flow from their ministry. Such members will be called lay preachers.”62 Additionally, the testimony of A. H. Wood denotes that each Calvinistic church tried to input their ministry terms or position in the new system of the Uniting Church, such as the ‘church meeting’ of the Congregational system, the Methodist system of ‘elders,’ the Methodist terms of ‘leaders,’ ‘leaders’ meetings,’ ‘quarterly meetings,’ ‘circuit’ and local preachers,’ ‘ministers’ tenure of Presbyterian and Congregational practice,’ and ‘the 58 Peter John Pereira, “How Uniting Church in Australia clergy, particularly females, experience and deal with stress in ministry,” a Masters of Counselling (Hons.) thesis, submitted to the University of New England in 2007. 59 “Why Does the Uniting Church in Australia Ordain Women to the Ministry of the Word? (574-575), accessed on 19/02/2015, http://ctm.uca.edu.au/layeducation/files/2012/08/Why-Does-the-Uniting-Church-in-AustraliaOrdain-Women-to-the-Ministry-of-the-Word.pdf. 60 The ordination of females was not the concern of any Australian Calvinistic churches, for they already had 35 female ministers between 1927 and 1977. Allowing a system of female ordination (1920s), the Congregationalists had 13 females as the first Australian church. The Methodist church from 1966 had 14, and from 1974, 8 female ministers were working at the Presbyterian Church. Peter Bentley, “Women Ministers Before 1977,” Church Heritage 10, 3 (1998), 161-174. Herbert, “The Uniting Church,” 17-19. 61 Hebert, “The Uniting Church,” 18. 62 Paragraph 14, Basis of Union, 1992. 14 Methodist invitation system of ministers.’63 On a national scope, the president and general secretary have the authority given by their respective councils. The church regulations indicate, “the responsibilities of the president shall be to give spiritual leadership and encouragement to the church generally, to represent the church as appropriate, to give counsel as occasion requires and to do other such things as may be requested or advised by the Assembly.” 64 The general secretary is to give general leadership, “to ensure execution of Assembly policy, to coordinate Assembly activities, to oversee management of Assembly staff, and to do other such things as the Assembly may require.”65 MISSION The mission projects of the ‘Frontier Services,’ ‘aboriginal ministry,’ ‘multi-cultural ministry,’ ‘education,’ and ‘social services,’ are applied in the Uniting Church, even though some of them are the continuing projects of the previous Calvinistic churches. One of them is a special ministry of the ‘Frontier Services (i.e., ‘Patrol padres,’ ‘In-Home Care,’ and ‘Flying Padres’)’ through which they reach out to the people of the Australian outback (rural regions).66 The Patrol Ministers of the Frontier Services are committed to being there for people, in moments of great joy and at times of utmost sadness. This project is flexible, for they frequently are asked to celebrate milestones and ceremonies in the outback. People in the Australian bush often choose to mark these occasions in the places that have meaning to them in the wideopen spaces, under the gum trees, or by the river.67 The Frontier Services also provides the 63 Wood, The Uniting Church of Australia, 43-45. Paragraph 6, Basis of Union. “Leadership,” accessed on 19/02/2015, http://moreeunitingchurch.org/about-theuniting-church/. 65 “Leadership.” 66 These missions originated from the previous mission activities of the Presbyterian churches. Prentis, “The Presbyterian Church of Australia 1901-1977: An Overview,” 241-243. 67 “Frontier Services,” accessed on 19/02/2015, http://www.frontierservices.com.au/news/item/694-a-weddinga-baptism-and-a-patrol-minister. 64 15 ‘In-Home Care services’ throughout Queensland, the Northern Territory, and the Kimberley.68 The ‘Flying Padres’ service is where the UCA minister can be brought to the people to spread the Word, assisting in times of need, and provide chaplaincy to very isolated schools over a large area of the Australian continent.69 The Uniting Aboriginal and Islander Christian Congress (UAICC) is the aboriginal arm of the church, with 10,000 to 15,000 indigenous Australians. In collaboration with the Christian Conference of Asia Urban Rural Mission (CCAURM), the church brought aboriginal pastors, lay leaders, and community workers from across Australia to consider the needs of the aboriginal church and community in 1982.70 The effort formed the organization so-called ‘The Uniting Aboriginal and Islander Christian Congress (UAICC) to be responsible for ministry and mission with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders people across Australia. 71 As a certain number (5-7 %) of the church worships in non-English languages (25 languages), the multi-cultural ministry is a social mission of the Uniting Church. John P. Brown proves multiculturalism in an urban context that “at the Canberra City Church we experience Sunday by Sunday people from many countries of Asia, the Pacific, Africa and Europe worshipping together.” 72 The Commission for World Mission of the Uniting Church brought to the national Assembly a statement entitled, ‘the Uniting Church is a Multi-cultural Church’ in 1985. The Assembly adopted it as the intention and nature of the Uniting Church in Australia. The Assembly of the Uniting Church then decided to use migrant languages as well as 68 “National In Home Care,” accessed on 19/02/2015, http://www.frontierservices.org/services/item/120national-in-home-care. 69 “The Flying Padre,” accessed on 19/02/2015, http://mdpresbytery.org.au/wpress/locations/the-flying-padre/. 70 John P. Brown, “Multi-Cultural Nature of the Uniting Church and Its Mission,” Mission and Theology 29 (2012), 150-151. 71 The relationship between the Assembly of the Uniting Church and the Uniting Aboriginal and Islander Christian Congress (UAICC) was challenged by the issue of attending the Bicentennial celebration in 1988, but it was recovered by the action of Uniting Church’s apology to the president of the UAICC IN 1994. Brown, “Multi-Cultural Nature of the Uniting Church and Its Mission,” 150-153. 72 Such as Australians of Anglo-Celtic background as well as Australians of other European, Tongan, Fijian, Rotuman, Papua New Guinean, West Papuan, Indonesian, Malaysian, Indian, Sri Lankan, Chinese, Korean, Tanzanian, Zambian, Liberian, Sudanese, Malawi, Ghanaian, and other backgrounds. Brown, “Multi-Cultural Nature of the Uniting Church and Its Mission,” 125 & 131. 16 English to facilitate participation in worship services. Of course, the translation project of the church liturgies into other languages also was launched by the authority of the national Assembly.73 The educational mission of the UCA operates 48 local primary and high schools in the nation. The number includes the oldest ones of the Newington College, Westminster School, Scotch College, Pedare Christian College, Prince Alfred College, Annesley College, Lincoln College, Moreton Bay College. The UCA Christian education is provided for all members of the new church, through local congregations and agencies. Especially, the church operates a new generational campaign, so-called Transit Lounge, which is an online publication for young people.74 The Adelaide College of Divinity (ACD), the Australian Catholic University (Trinity Theological College) and the long-established University of Divinity in Melbourne that are members of ecumenical theological consortia, additionally provide theological training and ministerial formation. The ministry training takes five years and involves substantial supervised practical experience.75 The community welfare services of the church has employed more than 20,000 people, particularly, in aged care, Lifeline, hospitals, nursing, family support services, youth services, and care for the homeless. Among them, the origin of the aged care services began when the Menzies government passed the Aged Persons Homes Act in 1954. The government scheme that provided subsidies for the building of independent living units for aged persons, lasted until 1982. 76 The social service of Uniting Care was practiced well in the Uniting Church. The departments of aged care progressively were developed in the 1980s as they established the Synod Aged Care Agency within the board for Social Responsibility. It grew rapidly in the 1990s where it was recognized as the Uniting 73 Brown, “Multi-Cultural Nature of the Uniting Church and Its Mission,” 140-142. The organization discusses about life, culture, the world and home, news and events in order to figure out life. “Transit Lounge,” accessed on 19/02/2015, http://www.thetransitlounge.com.au/about-us. 75 The Uniting College for leadership and theology, for example, is a member of the Adelaide College of Divinity. “The Uniting Church of Australia.” 76 Harry Herbert, “The Development of Social Responsibility in the Uniting Church in the New South Wales,” Church Heritage 17, 3 (2012): 195-198. 74 17 Ministry with the ageing, even though they failed to have their own board in the synod.77 Yet, The Uniting Care NSW/ACT is one of the largest providers of aged care in the Commonwealth Act of Australia.78 SOCIAL JUSTICE The Uniting Justice of the UCA has a strong commitment on the issue of social justice. It has taken stances on issues of aboriginal rights, the environment, apartheid, refugees and drug users.79 The equality and dignity of the marginalized people were also concerned through the issues of ethnic minorities, disabled people, and homosexual people. These stances have been expressed in practical involvement and political comment and advocacy. The Uniting Church especially has been at the forefront of the aboriginal ‘Native Title’ debate and the ‘Reconciliation’ campaign.80 In 1988, the Uniting Aboriginal and Islander Christian Congress (UAICC) invited the Uniting Church in Australia (UCA) to enter into a covenantal partnership. Thus, the church tried to define relationships between the indigenous and nonindigenous communities within the church based of mutuality, respect, and commitment encouraging self-determination for the indigenous church and new awareness for the nonindigenous church. 81 The result of the harmonious movement was sublimated by a reconciliation campaign in 1993. The Uniting church has taken its own journey to a new preamble to their constitution, which acknowledges aboriginal and Islander peoples as the first peoples of Australia. 77 Herbert, “The Development of Social Responsibility in the Uniting Church in the New South Wales,” 190195. 78 There are 7,500 staffs of UnitingCare for Social Mission. 79 The Uniting Justice Australia is the justice unit of the National Assembly of the Uniting Church in Australia, pursuing national matters of social and economic justice, human rights, peace, and the environment. “Uniting Justice,” accessed on 19/02/2015, http://www.unitingjustice.org.au/refugees-and-asylum-seekers. 80 Peter Lewis, “Covenant and Treaty: an Exploration of How the Uniting Church Covenant with the Uniting Aboriginal and Islander Christian Congress can inform and be informed by the Current Treaty Debate,” accessed on 19/02/2015, http://cp.unitingchurch.org.au/covenant_treaty.pdf. 81 The model was one of solidarity and deep partnership, defined by the biblical understanding of covenant. 18 The environmental issue of climate change also was another social concern. For that, the announcement of “The rights of nature and the rights of future generations” in 1991 was the initial moment based on the belief in God’s covenant with the creation: “Behold, I establish my covenant with you and your descendants after you and with every living creature (Gen. 9:9-10).”82 The perspective on the rights of future generations was seen as having a right to life with an unmanipulated human genetic inheritance. The coming generations should have healthy air and an intact ozone layer. In other words, they have a right to clean and sufficient waters.83 The church likely regards the significance of nature where human beings dwell, such as the nature – animate or inanimate – has a right to existence. It has a right to the protection of its eco-systems, species, and populations in their inter-connectedness. The rare ecosystems, and above all those with an abundance of species, are to be placed under absolute protection.84 Thus, the new faith community of Australia appealed to the United Nations (UN) to develop a new declaration, which explicitly protects the rights mentioned above. Before the announcement of “For the Sake of the Planet and all its People (2006),”85 the church also campaigned on “Tuvalu and the Impact of Global Warming” in 2003 that Australian government should sign and ratify the Kyoto protocols in relation to global warming, especially because this has affected the nation of Tuvalu and other Pacific countries. They suggested that Australia should offer the guarantee of special immigration status to the people 82 “I now establish my covenant with you and with your descendants after you and with every living creature that was with you—the birds, the livestock and all the wild animals, all those that came out of the ark with you—every living creature on earth” (Gen. 9:9-10). 83 They have the right to substantial reserves of non-(or only very slowly) renewable raw materials and energy sources. The future generations have a right to “cultural inheritance.” They also were recognized to have a right to physical living conditions that allow them a humanly dignified existence in cultural, economic, political, or social respects. “The Rights of Nature and the Rights of Future Generations,” accessed on 19/02/2015, http://www.unitingjustice.org.au/environment/uca-statements/item/479-the-rights-of-nature-and the-rights -of-future-generations. 84 The organisms have a right to a life fit for their species, including procreation within their appropriate ecosystems. The disturbances of nature require a justification. “Tuvalu and The Impact of Global Warming,” 10th Assembly, Uniting Church in Australia. Resolution 03.18.01, March, 2008. “The Rights of Nature and the Rights of Future Generations.” 85 “Environment: Caring For Creation,” accessed on 19/02/2015, http://unitingchurchwa.org.au/services/takinga-stand/social-justice/ environment/. 19 of Tuvalu, for immigration to Australia when their nation loses its viability for human habitation.86 Regarding apartheid (racism), the Uniting church, with over 150 leading community organisations from around Australia, have written to the attorney-general of Australia, urging him not to repeal the racial vilification protections in the Racial Discrimination Act in 2013.87 The church corporately emphasized that the racial hatred causes serious harm to individuals and diminishes us all as a community. They reported that the racism of ethnic minorities remains widespread in the Australian community and that Australian laws place limits on speech and expression in areas such as defamation, false advertising, sexual harassment, and threats to kill. They urged the Australian government to demonstrate its commitment to the diverse cultural, ethnic, and religious communities that make up the rich fabric of the multicultural nation by ruling out any repeal of the racial vilification provisions of the Racial Discrimination Act.88 For the status of refugees, the church announced the asylum seeker and refugee policy in July 2002.89 The church policy was standing in the context of the words of Jesus - based on a fellowship of reconciliation - a community in which all members work together for the good of the whole. In detail, the human rights of all people must be upheld at all times. The Australian response should culturally and sensitively take into account the situations from which people have come. The government policies and legislation should reflect a commitment to the rights and safety of asylum seekers and refugees and should clearly distinguish these from people smuggling. They also thought that no discrimination should be 86 “Tuvalu and the Impact of Global Warming.” The attorney-general has indicated his strong intention to repeal, or significantly weaken, section 18C of the Racial Discrimination Act on the basis that the provision represents a significant curtailment of freedom of speech. “Open Letter: Australia must retain Strong and Effective Protections Against Racial Vilification,” accessed on 19/02/2015, file:///C:/ Users/ u5593621/Downloads/Protection_again_racial_vilification.pdf. 88 See, “Open Letter: Australia must retain Strong and Effective Protections Against Racial Vilification.” 89 “Asylum Seeker and Refugee Policy,” accessed on 19/02/2015, http://www.unitingjustice.org.au/refugeesand-asylum-seekers/uca-statements/item/477-asylum-seeker-and-refugee-policy. 87 20 practiced in the treatment of asylum seekers, refugees, and humanitarian entrants. All refugees and humanitarian entrants should have access to government assistance to meet their basic needs. People who claim to be refugees should be treated justly and humanely. Likewise, the Australian legislation should refer particularly to the rights and needs of child asylum seekers and refugees. The nation should take a global approach to them. These principles of the Church eventually became the references to Australia’s policy, legislation, and practices toward asylum seekers, refugees, and humanitarian entrants. The disability sector has been through many periods of reform, and the Uniting church has been part of this reform story, amid the emergence of the community living movement. The beginning of the 1980s saw the International Year of Disabled People. While the Disability Services Act was quite a radical move in the mid-1990s, the Uniting Church (NSW and ACT Synod) supported all disability services.90 They focused on people with disabilities as individuals, care for the socio-economically disadvantaged and enhanced choice for people with disabilities.91 The services included assistance with daily living skills, respite care to support the family/carers of people, linking people with psychiatric and other disabilities who live in boarding houses back into community life, and supported accommodation for people with intellectual disabilities, mental illness, and other disabilities.92 Further, the educational programs of Lithgow Disability Services, Ella Community Centre, Wesley Disability Support Services and UnitingCare Supported Living, aimed to develop social and pre-employment skills for young school leavers who have an intellectual disability. 93 Such Uniting programs were invaluable in helping service users to make the transition to adult life within their community. 90 “Disability support,” accessed on 19/02/2015, http://www.uccommunity.org.au/disability. “The Uniting Church in Australia Synod of Victoria Disability Action Plan, 2000-2003,” accessed on 19/02/2015, https://www. humanrights.gov.au/sites/default/files/Disability%20Action%20Plan.pdf. 92 Nicola Cooper, “Providing Access for People with Disabilities,” March 2003, accessed on 19/02/2015, http://www. unitingcarenswact.org.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/16228/disabilityactionplan.pdf. 93 “UnitingCare Disability,” accessed on 19/02/2015, http://www.unitingcarenswact.org.au/what_we_do/ disability_services. 91 21 Regarding drug users, the Uniting church has shown their favour as well as providing safe injection facilities. The Medically Supervised Injecting Centre (MSIC) was an initiative of the 1999 New South Wales Drug Summit.94 The MSIC recognises that drug addiction is a chronic, relapsing condition. The MSIC supervises episodes of drug injecting that would otherwise happen elsewhere in public, and under inherently more dangerous conditions. Instead, drug injection occurs in a health service under the supervision of registered nurses and counsellors/health education officers. There is immediate access to emergency medical care in the event of an overdose or adverse event. The professional staffs are able to engage with users and facilitate effective referral to a variety of services, including specialist addiction treatment.95 The MSIC does not supply any drugs. The clients come to MSIC with pre-purchased drugs.96 They have been evaluated independently since it opened in 2001, with all reports showing benefit. In the last ten years of successful operation, the MSIC has registered over 12,600 clients and has successfully managed more than 4,400 drug overdoses on-site without a single fatality. The government also recognized the effort of the Uniting church: “The Uniting church played a lead in garnering acceptance for supervised injecting facilities by providing the venue for the ‘Tolerance Room’ and later for the formal trial.”97 The MSIC has provided a sensitive and timely early warning system with regard to drug trend, changes in purity and injecting risk behaviours.98 94 “Sydney Medically Supervised Injecting Centre (MSIC),” accessed on 19/02/2015, http://www.sydneymsic. com/index.php/what-we-do. 95 Jeff Shaw and Jeff Smith, “Legislative Comment Choosing Life: The Drug Summit and Beyond, Macquarie Law Journal Vol 1 No 1 (2001): 145-171. “The Kings Cross Injecting Room: The Case for Closure – Detailed Evidence,” accessed on 19/02/2015, http://www.drugfree.org.au/fileadmin/Media/Reference/DFA_Injecting _Room_Detailed_Research.pdf. 96 The MSIC does not support drug dealing. Selling, buying or sharing drugs at MSIC is prohibited, for they are responsible to both the Department of Health and the Police Force. 97 Praveena Gunaratnam, “Drug policy in Australia: The Supervised Injecting Facilities Debate,” accessed on 19/02/2015, https:// crawford.anu.edu.au/degrees/pogo/discussion_papers/PDP05-2.pdf. 98 The MSIC environment also provides a unique opportunity to gain a better understanding of injecting practices and evolution of drug overdose. Praveena Gunaratnam, “Drug policy in Australia: The Supervised Injecting Facilities Debate.” 22 Homosexual people, including the same-sex adoption issue, have regularly been debated almost from the inception of the Uniting church. They are generous to gay and lesbian people, and there is the possibility of ordination for them. 99 The fairly broad consensus has been that a person’s sexual orientation should not be a bar to attendance, membership, or participation in the life of the church.100 The Unity and Friends is a group of the South Australian Synod of the Uniting Church, committed to the full inclusion of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender people, and their families and friends, within the whole life of the church and the Australian community. 101 Further, the Assembly resolution and subsequent material made it clear that when presbyteries select candidates for ministry they may be guided by a presbytery commitment to a particular approach to sexual ethics, but each determination of candidature must still be made on a case-by-case basis.102 During the course of the debate, and in particular from 1997 onwards, some ministers living in same-sex relationships have ‘come out’ without their ordination or ministry being challenged. The Uniting Church is one of very few Christian denominations that accepts and supports the ministry of people in same-sex relationships.103 Harry Herbert even said while many ministers and congregations support equal rights, Christian churches are out of step with the community on social reforms such as same-sex marriage.104 CONCLUSION 99 “Gay and Lesbian Couples: Prayers and blessings?,” accessed on 19/02/2015, http://www.unitingnetwork australia.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/UN-NSW-Gay-and-Lesbian-Couples.pdf. 100 See “The Uniting Church of Australia.” 101 “Unity and Friends,” accessed 19/02/2015, http://unityandfriends.unitingchurch.org.au/. 102 “List of Christian Denominational Positions on Homosexuality,” accessed on 19/02/2015, http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/List_ of_Christian_denominational_positions_on_homosexuality. 103 See “The Uniting Church of Australia.” 104 “Churches making Mistakes of Their Past,” accessed on 19/02/2015, http://unitingcarenswact.org.au/news/ news_item_test#sthash. PqBWraFV.dpuf. 23 The Christian history of Australia originated with the initial colonial work of Great Britain in the eighteenth century. The members and leaders of the Calvinistic groups individually relocated to the new colony as the non-state Protestant churches. The religious disadvantages of the Presbyterians, Congregations and Methodists against the privileges of the imperial religion (the so-called Anglican Church) caused the delay of the proper settlement in the colonial societies of Hobart, Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, South Australia, and Western Australia. Yet, they experienced not only a denominational unity, but also an interdenominational unity movement. All of the Calvinist churches pursued a unity campaign in their denomination when the colonies of Great Britain corporately formed the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901. The congregational church composed the Congregational Union of Australia and New Zealand (CUANZ) in 1888. 105 The Presbyterian churches of Scotland, Dutch, and Europe were motivated to establish the Presbyterian Church of Australia (PCA) in 1901. The major Methodist bodies also united in the name of ‘the Methodist Church of Australasia (MCA) in 1902. The denominational cooperation was institutionally operated through the periods of the World Wars and of the initial Cold War. The Australian Calvinist denominations did not stop the unity campaign, but interdenominationally developed its organizational scope in the 1950-60s. The result of the harmonious effort under the influence of the global phenomena challenged people to found the Uniting Church of Australia (UCA) as the authentic Australian church of Calvinism in 1977, even though the spirit of the genuine Calvinism was liberalized in the perspective of social justice, especially gender issues. The Basis of Union (BU) reflects the unique doctrine of the new church, especially with the acknowledgement of ‘scholarly interpreters,’ as ‘the informed faith.’ The new role of leadership was adopted from the previous Calvinist churches 105 Geoffrey Barnes, “Leaders of Congregationalism 1904-1977: Presidents of the Congregational Union of Australia and of New Zealand, 1888-1977,” Church Heritage 14, 1 (2005), 2-12. 24 including ‘lay preacher,’ while the mission strategy remains in the national perspectives of remote people, aboriginal culture, new arrivals, education, and community services. The involvement of social justice was broad on the issues of aboriginal rights, the global environment, apartheid, refugees, and asylum seekers, and drug addiction. However, the aspects of homosexual culture including same-sex marriage and homosexual ordination became an ongoing controversy and turned out as so liberal, enough to challenge some members and leaders of the church. Thus, the UCA fundamentally was derived from the Calvinistic origins of the previous European churches, but the post-colonial nature of the Australian church, as another new dissenting church, caused the development of liberal theology in contemporary Australia. 25