The Design of an Interactive Virtual Environment for Movement Rehabilitation of Traumatic Brain Injury Patients
2010
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ELEMENTS:
The Design of an Interactive Virtual Environment for Movement
Rehabilitation of Traumatic Brain Injury Patients
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy from the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology
Jonathan Duckworth
BSc. Hons, Pg Dip. Architecture, M. Industrial Design
School of Media and Communication
Design and Social Context
RMIT University
July 2010
i
DECLARATION
I certify that except where due acknowledgement has been made, the work is that of the
author alone; the work has not been submitted previously, in whole or in part, to qualify
for any other academic award; and the content of the thesis is the result of work which
has been carried out since the official commencement date of the approved research
program; any editorial work, paid or unpaid, carried out by a third party is
acknowledged; and, ethics procedures and guidelines have been followed.
Signature
Jonathan Duckworth
July 2010
ii
ABSTRACT
This exegesis details the development of an interactive art work titled Elements
designed to assist upper limb movement rehabilitation for patients recovering from
traumatic brain injury. Enhancing physical rehabilitative processes in the early stages
following a brain injury is one of the great challenges facing therapists. Elements
enables physical user interaction that may present new opportunities for treatment.
One of the key problems identified in the neuro-scientific field is that developers
of interactive computer systems for movement rehabilitation are often constrained to the
use of conventional desktop interfaces. These interfaces often fall short of fostering
natural user interaction that translates into the relearning of body movement for
patients, particularly in ways that reinforce the embodied relationship between the
sensory world of the human body and the predictable effects of bodily movement in
relation to the surrounding environment. Interactive multimedia environments that can
correlate a patient’s sense of embodiment may assist in the acquisition of movement
skills that transfer to the real world. The central theme of my exegesis will address
these concerns by analysing contemporary theories of embodied interaction as a
foundation to design Elements.
Designing interactive computer environments for traumatic brain injured patients
is, however, a challenging issue. Patients frequently exhibit impaired upper limb
function which severely affects activities for daily living and self-care. Elements
responds to this level of disability by providing the patient with an intuitive tabletop
computer environment that affords basic gestural control.
As part of a multidisciplinary project team, I designed the user interfaces,
interactive multimedia environments, and audiovisual feedback (visual, haptic and
auditory) used to help the patients relearn movement skills.
The physical design of the Elements environment consists of a horizontal
tabletop graphics display, a stereoscopic computer video tracking system, tangible user
interfaces, and a suite of seven interactive software applications. Each application
provides the patients with a task geared toward the patient reaching, grasping, lifting,
moving, and placing the tangible user interfaces on the display. Audiovisual computer
feedback is used by patients to refine their movements online and over time. Patients
can manipulate the feedback to create unique aesthetic outcomes in real time. The
system design provides tactility, texture, and audiovisual feedback to entice patients to
explore their own movement capabilities in externally directed and self-directed ways.
This exegesis contributes to the larger research agenda of embodied interaction.
My original contribution to knowledge is Elements, an interactive artwork that may
enable patients to relearn movement skills, raise their level of self-esteem, sense of
achievement, and behavioural skills.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to acknowledge and thank the following individuals and organisations for
their invaluable support and encouragement writing this exegesis and developing the
project:
First and foremost, I wish to acknowledge my supervisors in the School of Media
and Communication, RMIT University. I offer my sincere thanks to Dr. Lisa Dethridge for
her intellectual support, encouragement, and comments over the duration. I also wish to
acknowledge Associate Professor Damian Schofield for his interest in the project and
for his enduring support.
I wish to thank my collaborators; Associate Professor Peter H. Wilson for his
friendship, and for generously sharing his thoughts and ideas with me over the course
of this project. His critical guidance steered me through the world of rehabilitation health
science. My thanks also extend to Patrick Thomas, and David Shum at Griffith
University, Brisbane; Dr Gavin Williams PhD, Senior Physiotherapist at the Epworth
Hospital, Melbourne, for supervising the clinical study of the Elements system; the
patients at Epworth Hospital who graciously participated in the study; and fellow PhD
students Nick Mumford and Ross Eldridge, who were a pleasure to work with.
I wish to express gratitude to Andrew Donovan, Australia Council for the Arts, for
generously supporting this project. This work was supported in part by an Australian
Research Council (ARC) Linkage Grant LP0562622, and Synapse Grant awarded by
the Australian Council for the Arts.
I also wish to express gratitude to all the staff at the Australian Network for Art
and Technology (ANAT) and RMIT Gallery for exhibiting the project at Super Human –
Revolution of the Species.
Special thanks to Raymond Lam for computer programming support; Gerald
Mair for assisting in the production of the audio; Paul Beckett for evaluating the
Nintendo Wii Remotes as a potential user interface for the project; Stephen Hands for
assisting in the manufacture of the tangible user interfaces; and Adam Browne for his
invaluable editorial assistance in preparing this document.
Finally, this work is dedicated to my family, and in loving memory of my father
Kenneth Duckworth. My heartfelt thanks to my wife, Kathy, son, Thomas, my family in
Scotland, and Australia, for their encouragement, love, and support, throughout my
candidature.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1:
Introduction
1
1.1
Description of project
1
1.2
Background to research
2
1.3
Rationale
4
1.4
Methodology
5
Chapter 2:
Literature Review
8
2.1
Introduction
8
2.2
Virtual reality technology for disability
9
2.2.1
Virtual reality for traumatic brain injury rehabilitation
11
2.2.2
The ecological approach to traumatic brain injury rehabilitation
11
2.2.3
Natural interfaces for Traumatic Brain Injury rehabilitation
12
2.3
Human computer interaction
14
2.3.1
15
The embodied approach to human computer interaction
2.4
Embodied interaction in new media art & design for rehabilitation
18
2.5
Conclusions
20
Chapter 3:
Conceptual Framework:
According to Human Computer Interaction designer Paul Dourish,
how may we define the embodied nature of user experience with
interactive media?
22
3.1
Introduction
22
3.2
Embodied Interaction according to Paul Dourish
23
3.2.1
Tangible computing
25
3.2.2
Ubiquitous computing
26
3.3
3.4
The foundations of Embodied Interaction according to Paul Dourish
28
3.3.1
Dourish’s first foundation: Ontology
29
3.3.2
Dourish’s second foundation: Intersubjectivity
31
3.3.3
Dourish’s third foundation: Intentionality
33
3.3.4
Dourish’s fourth foundation: Coupling
34
3.3.5
Dourish’s fifth foundation: Metaphor
37
Conclusion
39
v
Chapter 4:
Case Study:
How may we observe Dourish’s theory for embodied interaction in the
techniques of new media artist Myron Krueger?
41
4.1
Introduction
41
4.2
An Artificial Reality: VIDEOPLACE
41
4.3
Embodied interaction in the work of Myron Krueger
43
4.3.1
Dourish’s first foundation: Ontology related to Krueger
44
4.3.2
Dourish’s second foundation: Intersubjectivity related to Krueger
47
4.3.3
Dourish’s third foundation: Intentionality related to Krueger
49
4.3.4
Dourish’s fourth foundation: Coupling related to Krueger
49
4.3.5
Dourish’s fifth foundation: Metaphor related to Krueger
51
4.4
Discussion and Conclusion
Chapter 5:
The Research Project:
How useful are the theories of Dourish, and techniques of Krueger
to the development of my project?
52
55
5.1
Introduction
55
5.2
The Elements Project
56
5.3
Embodied interaction in Elements
58
5.3.1
Dourish’s first foundation: Ontology related to Elements
59
5.3.2
Dourish’s second foundation: Intersubjectivity related to Elements
70
5.3.3
Dourish’s third foundation: Intentionality related to Elements
75
5.3.4
Dourish’s fourth foundation: Coupling related to Elements
76
5.3.5
Dourish’s fifth foundation: Metaphor related to Elements
79
5.4
User evaluation of Elements
Chapter 6:
6.1
6.2
Conclusion:
Project conclusion and directions for future research
81
84
Conclusion
84
6.1.1
An embodied approach to the design of Elements
85
6.1.2
Embodiment and play in Elements
86
6.1.3
A design framework used to develop Elements
87
Future Directions
88
6.2.1
88
Moral and ethical obligations
vi
6.2.2
Computer game design for rehabilitation
89
6.2.3
Motivating patients in rehabilitation
90
6.2.4
Broader applications
90
Bibliography
92
Appendices
97
Attachment A – DVD of Elements
rear cover
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Illustration of Elements prototype
1
Figure 2: Dourish’s five main foundations of embodied interaction
22
Figure 3: Images of Pierre Wellner’s DigitalDesk
27
Figure 4: Still images of VIDEOPLACE, Myron Krueger
42
Figure 5: Illustration of Elements prototype
57
Figure 6: Four graspable, tangible user interfaces
61
Figure 7: Elements Graphical user interface
63
Figure 8: A patient places the cylindrical TUI onto a series of targets
64
Figure 9: The ‘Bases’ task
65
Figure 10: The ‘Random Bases’ task
65
Figure 11: The ‘GO’ task
65
Figure 12: The ‘GO,-NO-GO‘ task
66
Figure 13: A patient moves a TUI to activate and mix sounds in the ‘Mixer’ task
68
Figure 14: Patient moves multiple TUIs to draw lines and shapes in the ‘Squiggles’ task
68
Figure 15: Patient moves multiple TUIs to create audiovisual compositions in the
‘Swarm’ task
69
Figure 16: Examples of audiovisual feedback
72
Figure 17: The manufacture process for each TUI
76
Figure 18: Images of design to accommodate electronics
78
Figure 19: An embodied interaction design framework I used to develop Elements
88
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: A description of the audiovisual features of the Elements system and the
71
related movement variables
vii
Chapter 1:
1.1
Introduction
Description of project
My project, Elements, is an interactive multimedia artwork that aims to support
movement assessment and rehabilitation for patients recovering from traumatic brain
injury (TBI). It is intended for TBI adults with moderate or severe upper limb movement
disabilities.
As shown in Figure 1, Elements comprises a horizontally mounted table top LCD
screen that displays the interactive environments to the patient. The patient interacts
with the environment via four tangible user interfaces (TUIs). The TUIs are soft
graspable interfaces that mediate the form of interaction between patient and the
environment. A computer camera mounted above the main display identifies the TUI
and tracks its position and orientation relative to the computer display. Essentially, the
camera tracks the endpoint motion of the patient’s arm while performing an activity
holding the TUI. Real-time audiovisual feedback can be used by patients to refine their
movements over time. Patients can also manipulate the computer generated feedback
to create unique audiovisual outcomes. The overall system design provides tactility,
texture, and audiovisual feedback to entice patients to explore their own movement
capabilities in externally directed and self-directed ways.
Figure 1: Illustration of Elements prototype. Image key - 1) Patient; 2) Computer camera and
mount; 3) Patient display; 4) TUIs; 5) Therapist display; 6) Therapist administrator
1
Specific to my project, I designed the tangible user interfaces, the interactive
multimedia environments, and the audiovisual feedback (visual, haptic and auditory) to
engage and motivate the recovering patient. The multimedia environments provide
patients with the ability to predict and control their actions flexibly, and to provide new
possibilities to relearn upper limb movement skills. My design may enable therapists to
reintegrate a patient’s sense of space and of their body through physical user
interaction with computer environments. To achieve my aim I will investigate theories
and methods related to the design of user interfaces that promote the augmentation of
human movement.
1.2
Background to research
An important subject of interest for new media art and communication study is
the design of physical interfaces with which people interact with media. Interaction
designers and new media artists are exploring how to design computer interfaces that
enhance physical user interaction and experience. For example, the advances and
availability of computer sensing technologies such as the Nintendo Wii Remote
controller enables the human body to interact in more natural and expressive ways with
computer technology.1 The designers of such interfaces are striving to link the user’s
physical environment and the human body with computer environments through the
user interface.
Understanding how users interact with computers and new technology is
representative of a larger general problem in human computer interaction (HCI). HCI
provides theories in terms designing user interfaces for interactive media applications.
According to HCI designer Paul Dourish, the rise in the development of mobile and
tangible electronic products has led user interaction away from the computer display
screen and into the physical space of the user (Dourish 2001). Dourish suggests this
represents a change in culture for HCI as designers shift their focus from the functional
usability of interfaces to the experience of user interaction.
Dourish suggests that research in HCI should further explore how users
experience their interaction with technology as a way to understand the opportunities
emerging from new forms of technological practice. He argues for an ‘embodied’
approach to interaction design that factors in the relationship between the user’s body
1
http://www.nintendo.com/wii/what/controllers
2
and the user’s environment with computer systems. The embodied approach to
interaction design capitalises on our physical skills and our familiarity with real-world
objects. In short, Dourish argues that the basis for user interaction should focus on firstperson, lived, human body experience and its relation to the environment.
Dourish’s embodied perspective of human interaction with computer technology
is consistent with ecological approaches to movement rehabilitation. An ecological
approach refers to the degree of relevance or similarity that a rehabilitation activity has
relative to the ‘real’ world, and in its value for improving a patients everyday functioning
(Rizzo 2005). According to key theorists in motor rehabilitation, including Maureen K.
Holden and Heidi Sveistrup, interactive multimedia environments hold great potential to
augment physical awareness and recovery for patients with traumatic brain injury
(Holden 2005), (Sveistrup 2004). They suggest that a broad range of interactive
technologies may enable therapists to reintegrate a patient’s sense of space and of
their body in ecologically valid ways.
Designing user interfaces for traumatic brain injured patients is however a
challenging issue. In TBI, the main streams of sensory information that contribute to a
patient’s sense of embodiment (visual, auditory, tactile, and somatic) are fragmented as
a result of their injury. More holistically, the patient’s sense of position in space – their
sense of embodiment – is severely compromised. According to Holden, in order to
rebuild body sense and the ability to effect action, the damaged motor system must
receive varied but correlated forms of sensory input during the early phase of recovery;
this is seen to maximise the opportunity for recovery (Holden 2005). This raises the
issue of how one might design multimedia environments for rehabilitation that can
correlate a patient’s sense of embodiment.
According to Maria Shulthies and Albert Rizzo, traditional therapies for TBI
patients employ interventions that tend to be tedious, monotonous and provide little
opportunity for grading the level of difficulty (Schultheis and Rizzo 2001). They discuss
how these approaches are often labour and cost-intensive; they require one-to-one
physical and occupational therapy over an extended period using a variety of props, in
relatively large workspaces. My project is a direct response for the need to design
interactive environments that will engage, motivate, and correlate a patient’s sense of
embodiment in ways conducive to relearning motor skills.
3
1.3
Rationale
According to several researchers in motor rehabilitation, interactive technologies
may assist health providers to accelerate the recovery process, and show great
potential in advancing rehab practices (Holden 2005), (Rose, Brooks et al. 2005),
(Schultheis and Rizzo 2001). Traumatic brain injury refers to a cerebral injury caused by
a sudden external physical force. Such physical trauma can lead to a variety of
physical, cognitive, emotional and behavioural deficits that may have long-lasting and
devastating consequences for the victims and their families. TBI represents a significant
health issue for Australians with approximately 2% of the population living with
disabilities stemming from cerebral injury (Fortune and Wen 1999). The cost of disability
is estimated to exceed $3 billion per year in Australia. The ability to enhance
rehabilitative processes in the early stages following TBI is one of the great challenges
for therapists. Consequently, movement rehabilitation specialists, families, and helpers
are continually looking for novel approaches that will assist TBI patients relearn basic
mobility skills and improve quality of life. Developing new therapeutic treatments using
interactive computer technology may improve the rate of recovery, increase the quality
of life for patients, and reduce the cost to society.
Traumatic brain injured patients frequently exhibit impaired upper limb function,
including reduced range of motion, accuracy of reaching, inability to grasp and lift
objects, or perform fine motor movements (McCrea, Eng et al. 2002). These symptoms,
among many others, often lead to a significant incidence of depression among people
with physical and intellectual disabilities, which presents a psychological barrier to
engaging in rehabilitation and daily living (Esbensen, Rojahn et al. 2003) (Shum,
Valentine et al. 1999). According to psychologist David Shum, TBI patient engagement
is one of the key elements to maintaining motivation in rehabilitation therapy. The issue
of maintaining patient engagement underlines the importance of designing therapeutic
tasks and environments that can be presented in a meaningful and stimulating way. My
research aim is to design an interface that can maximise a TBI patient’s engagement in
relevant and pleasurable activities that may complement existing, often tedious,
approaches to rehabilitation.
My project is important because there is a need to explore approaches and
methodologies to design user interfaces for rehab applications. In an analysis of virtual
reality technology for rehabilitation, Albert Rizzo identifies the design of user interfaces
as the area that requires most attention in research (Rizzo 2005). He suggests the
4
development of naturalistic interfaces for user interaction is of vital importance in
optimising performance and improving access for patients with cognitive and motor
impairments. Rizzo notes that developers of rehabilitation systems are often
constrained to using conventional computer hardware such as joysticks, mice, and
keyboards. These user interfaces often fall short of fostering natural interaction, as they
do not reflect how we interact with our environment and manipulate objects in the real
world, particularly in ways that reinforce the embodied relationship between the sensory
world of the human body, and the predictable effects of movement of one’s body in
relation to one’s surrounding environment. For this reason, I will define and clarify what
embodiment is, and why and how it is being applied to the field of HCI design, and new
media art. The central theme of my exegesis will address these concerns by analysing
the role of embodiment as an approach to design my project.
1.4
Methodology
I will begin in Chapter 2 by reviewing a broad range of literature related to an
embodied view of interaction design and physical user interaction with computer
environments. I will draw on a multiplicity of dialogues, methods, contexts and practices
from a variety of disciplines. I will examine the theories of HCI design (Dourish 2001),
(Ishii and Ullmer 1997), (Norman 2002), interactive art (Krueger 1991), and provide
examples of interactive artistic applications developed for rehabilitation (Brooks,
Camurri et al. 2002) (Hasselblad, Petersson et al. 2007). The theories, approaches, and
techniques identified may provide me with a conceptual foundation for the development
of my project. By understanding the approaches of HCI designers, new media artists,
and scientists, I will in later stages develop new design strategies for therapy delivery.
Questions for my research revolve around the embodied nature of the human
body interacting with a computer simulated environment. As a direct response to the
needs of therapists and patients, I will explore the nature of embodied interaction as a
design approach for my project. I will discuss my approach through three research
questions:
Research Question 1: According to HCI designer Paul Dourish, how may we define
the embodied nature of user experience with interactive media?
In Chapter 3, I will examine Research Question 1. I will expand in more detail
the theories of embodied interaction according to HCI designer Paul Dourish. Dourish
5
provides five foundational theories (ontology, intersubjectivity, intentionality, coupling,
and metaphor) as an approach to understand the experience of user interaction with
computers. Through these interrelated theories I will explore the nature of embodiment,
user experience, and computer response as a design approach to movement
rehabilitation.
Research Question 2: How may we observe Dourish’s theory for embodied interaction
in the techniques of new media artist Myron Krueger?
In Chapter 4, I will examine Research Question 2. I will explore and test
Dourish’s theory by applying it to a case study. The work of artist and technologist
Myron Krueger provides us with an example of embodied interaction through his media
art work VIDEOPLACE (Krueger, 1991: 33-64). Krueger intuitively speculated that this
particular work could be used in the service of movement rehabilitation (ibid: 197-198). I
will refer to Dourish’s five foundations for embodied interaction and apply them to
Krueger’s VIDEOPLACE. By analysing Krueger’s design techniques through Dourish,
this case study may enable me to develop a design methodology for my project.
Research Question 3: How useful are these theories and techniques to my project?
In Chapter 5, I will examine Research Question 3. I will describe the
development and design of my project, the Elements upper limb rehabilitation
environment. My design will utilise readily available computer technologies, designed to
be intuitive and accessible for patients and therapists, and to support current clinical
practices. I will describe in detail the design of the user interface, the suite of interactive
environments, and audiovisual feedback. I will relate my design to Dourish’s five
foundations of embodied interaction design and Krueger’s techniques. By observing the
theories and techniques of Dourish and Krueger, we may explore new possibilities for
user interactivity that support human movement and expression for TBI patients. I will
also discuss the user’s experience of Elements as a method of evaluating the design.
To conclude, in chapter six I will reflect on my embodied interaction approach as
applied to the design of my project. I will identify the successful characteristics of my
design approach that may begin to address the concerns of rehabilitation therapists. I
will also discuss the potential of interactive art for hospital-based rehabilitation as a
direction for future research. TBI patients may be considered a new audience for media
6
artists. The reciprocal demands of new media art and health science in exploring media
art for therapeutic applications may be rich with possibilities for future research.
7
Chapter 2:
2.1
Literature Review
Introduction
In this chapter I will explore design theories that examine user interfaces for
human computer interaction. I will pay particular attention to theoretical paradigms in
human computer interaction that explore embodiment and user engagement through
physical user interaction with computer technology. The aim of my research is to design
and develop an interactive artwork titled Elements that supports movement assessment
and rehabilitation for patients recovering from traumatic brain injury (TBI). The theories
identified in this chapter will enable me to lay down a conceptual foundation for the
development of my project.
By exploring the relationship between the user interface and user experience I
may begin to design an interactive environment for TBI patients that engages them in
the relearning of their movement. The literature referred to in this chapter represents a
multiplicity of dialogues, methods, and practices drawn from a variety of disciplines. I
will survey the field in the following way:
i)
In Section 2.2 I will provide an introductory overview of computer mediated
interventions for disability. This overview may allow me to identify the
limitations and opportunities within the field of traumatic brain injury
rehabilitation for enhancing and enabling user interaction. However, a
detailed discussion on medical literature and background theory regarding
movement rehabilitation is beyond the scope of my exegesis.
ii)
In Section 2.3 I will discuss the field of human computer interaction. I will
explore theoretical paradigms around the nature of embodied interactionrelated design areas in computing.
iii)
In Section 2.4 I will provide examples of artists and rehabilitation therapists
who explore the experience of embodied user interaction as an aesthetic
approach to their work. I will draw on several examples where playfulness
and artistic expression is used to motivate patients with disabilities through
their physical interaction.
8
My project is important because there is a need to explore approaches and
methodologies to design appropriate user interfaces for traumatic brain injury
rehabilitation applications. The theories, approaches, and techniques identified will
provide me with a conceptual foundation for the development of my project. By
understanding the approaches of human computer interaction designers, new media
artists, and scientists, new design strategies for therapy delivery may be explored.
2.2
Virtual reality technology for disability
Over the past decade a community of researchers has been using interactive
computer technologies to assist in the assessment and rehabilitation of various
disabilities. This is evidenced by the number of new conferences for academic
researchers who are creating interactive ‘virtual reality’ applications for health science.2
In general, virtual reality is a term that implies a broad range of three dimensional
computer simulated environments and associated hardware. The conventionally held
view of virtual reality is one where participant-observers can be totally immersed in, and
are able to interact with a computer simulated three dimensional virtual environment.
Detailed descriptions of virtual reality and related technology have been extensively
documented (Rheingold 1992), (Sherman and Craig 2003), (Burdea and Coiffet 2003),
therefore only a cursory description will be provided here.
According to Sherman and Craig virtual reality is defined as:
“a medium composed of interactive computer simulations that sense the
participant’s position and actions and replace or augment the feedback to one or
more senses, giving the feeling of being mentally immersed or present in the
simulation (a virtual world).” (Sherman and Craig 2003)
A virtual environment is a simulation of a real or imaginary world that is
generated through computer software that can be explored and interacted with in realtime. Virtual environments can be displayed via standard desktop monitors, or single
screen projection; head-mounted displays which allows viewing via small monitors in
front of each eye; or multiple projected room-sized screens. User interaction occurs via
hardware devices that can monitor user movement. For example, the Intersense Wand
TM
is a hand-held device that tracks the position and direction of the user’s hand. Other
2
For a list of associated conferences see the International Society for Virtual Rehabilitation,
ISVR, http://www.virtual-rehab.org.
9
devices can provide simulations of haptic and force feedback to participants. For
example, the PHANToM TM haptic stylus interface provides tactile feedback when used
to explore 3D data (Burdea and Coiffet 2003).
Sue Cobb and Paul Sharkey review a decade of research and development of
virtual reality for disabilities (224 articles in total) (Cobb and Sharkey 2007). The
projects described by Cobb and Sharkey range from applications that assist stroke
patients with their arm movement using robotics (Louriero, Collin et al. 2004), to semiimmersive interactive simulated environments for children with severe disabilities
(Brooks, Camurri et al. 2002). This research community is broad and multi-disciplined,
consisting of medical researchers, computer scientists, rehabilitation therapists,
educators, and practitioners.
Likewise the range of interactive media, their application, and target user
populations is broad. Cobb et al. describe a range of technologies, and examine how
they can improve existing methods of assessment, and rehabilitation. A substantial
body of evidence suggests that interactive technologies can provide alternative
therapeutic solutions that support individuals with disabilities (Cobb and Sharkey 2007).
According to Cobb et al., there is much debate within the rehab community as to
what constitutes the term ‘virtual reality’. In their review they identify a subset of other
media to which total sensory immersion and simulated three dimensional environments
do not necessarily pertain. They note that over the course of a decade of rehab
research the definition of virtual reality grew to include ‘associated technologies’. This
definition includes mixed reality, augmented reality, tele-rehabilitation, and fullyimmersive simulated virtual environments. The definition also includes a variety user
interfaces that can track a full range of human body-movements (Zhou and Hu 2004).
How users interact with virtual environments is enabled by the user interface. By
user interaction, I mean the relationship between the computer response and the user
on each other’s actions. The range and availability of user interfaces and bodymovement tracking technologies provide the user with means of interacting with, and
experiencing a computer-simulated environment. The computer detects user input and
modifies parameters in the virtual environment instantaneously. We may conclude that
an analysis of associated technology has enabled the research community to embrace
a broader range of hardware offering users interfaces to, and interaction with,
multimedia computers, virtual, and real environments.
10
2.2.1
Virtual reality for traumatic brain injury rehabilitation
According to a number of researchers in motor rehabilitation, virtual reality may
assist health-providers accelerate the recovery process and shows great potential in
advancing rehab practices for traumatic brain injury (Holden 2005), (Rose, Brooks et al.
2005), (Schultheis and Rizzo 2001). The interest in virtual reality and other associated
multimedia technology for brain injury rehabilitation stems from a number of perceived
advantages of virtual over real-world training. Maureen Holden’s review of virtual reality
used for rehab finds that people with disabilities appear capable of learning movement
skills using the technology (Holden 2005). Patients learning movement in virtual
environments can transfer this knowledge to the real world in most cases. Holden also
highlights that virtual reality can provide patients with feedback on performance and can
motivate patients to endure extensive practice of movement. In Holden’s review no
adverse side effects have been reported in impaired populations where interactive
technologies have been used to train movement abilities.
2.2.2
The ecological approach to traumatic brain injury rehabilitation
The most contentious statement in Holden’s analysis relates to the transfer of
movement skills learned in virtual environments to performance of the same skills in the
real world. According to Albert Rizzo, the transference of training or ‘ecological validity’
of virtual reality has often been questioned. ‘Ecological validity’ means the degree of
relevance or similarity that a virtual environment has in relation to the ‘real’ world. It
directly relates to the validity of rehabilitation in improving a patients everyday
functioning (Rizzo 2005).
The term ‘ecological’ in psychology refers to the view that behaviour or action
can only be fully appreciated by understanding the nature of the interaction between the
individual, the task at hand, and the structure of physical and social environment
(Gibson 1979). Rizzo argues that designing virtual environments that incorporate
challenges that require real-world functional behaviours may enhance the ecological
validity of rehabilitation. Rizzo suggests that virtual reality systems can present patients
with visually realistic virtual environments in which patient performance can be tested.
This capacity of virtual reality is valuable for retraining tasks that are potentially
hazardous for traumatic brain injured patients, such as navigating city streets, or
preparing meals in the kitchen (Schultheis and Rizzo 2001). These examples
demonstrate efforts to enhance the ecological validity of rehabilitation. Virtual reality can
11
provide detailed, realistic environmental and task simulations that can be transferred to
the real world.
However, Rizzo questions whether the audiovisual realism of virtual reality is the
only factor that contributes to an ecologically valid training environment (Rizzo 2005).
Rizzo points out that much effort could be consumed in improving the audiovisual
realism of a virtual environment beyond a level that is really necessary to accomplish
effective training. He suggests that the audiovisual realism may be secondary in
importance to the way the actual tasks are performed by the patient. According to Heidi
Sveistrup, physical actions that reflect real-world movement performed by the patient
may have a greater contribution to the desired effect of re-learning motor skills
(Sveistrup 2004). This raises the issue of designing user interfaces appropriate for
traumatic brain injured patients that reflect real-world actions in ecologically valid ways
We may conclude that simulated virtual environments can represent real-world
environments that in turn may enhance learning. This raises the issue how user
interfaces might be designed to be comparable to similar action opportunities in the real
world and thus enhance learning. If the user interface can replicate real-life movement
challenges as opposed to solely recreating realistic looking virtual environments can the
ecological validity be enhanced?
2.2.3
Natural interfaces for traumatic brain injury rehabilitation
Albert Rizzo identifies the design of user interfaces as the area that requires
most attention in virtual reality rehabilitation research. Rizzo suggests the development
of naturalistic interfaces for user interaction is of vital importance to optimise
performance and improve access for patients with cognitive and motor impairments
(Rizzo 2005). Rizzo notes that developers of virtual reality rehabilitation systems are
often constrained to use existing computer interfaces such as joysticks, mouse, and
keyboard. Using these conventional interfaces may limit the opportunities for relearning
movements for traumatic brain injured patients. Rizzo points out that conventional user
interfaces often fall short of the aim to foster natural interaction as they do not reflect
how we interact with our environment and manipulate objects in the real world. Put
simply, conventional computer interfaces do not represent how we interact with the real
world to perform tasks for daily living.
12
Interaction designer Tom Djajadiningrat et al. criticise interaction design
approaches for virtual reality. They suggest current virtual reality interfaces neglect the
intrinsic importance of body movement and tangible interaction (Djajadiningrat,
Matthews et al. 2007). They suggest that virtual reality interfaces rarely address the
notion of motor skill and manual dexterity, or transfer our real-world movement skills
into the virtual environment. According to Djajadiningrat, conventional interfaces infer
that user interaction should be made as simple as possible (Djajadiningrat, Matthews et
al. 2007). For example, keyboard button pushing is perceived to be simple from a
perceptual-motor perspective, in so much as learning is shifted almost completely to the
cognitive domain.
However, Holden suggests there is great potential for virtual reality interfaces to
help traumatic brain injured patients relearn simple perceptual-motor skills (Holden
2005). For example, the movement skills required to lift a cup could be relearned
through a specially designed user interface that supports a similar action. In the real
world, we gain knowledge about our environment directly through our senses – vision,
hearing, touch, smell, and proprioception (awareness of our body). Likewise we can
utilise the same senses to obtain information about a virtual environment through the
human computer interface. However, designing user interfaces for TBI patients is
challenging.
After injury, movement performance in traumatic brain injured patients is
constrained by a number of physiological and biomechanical factors including the
increase in muscle tone that occurs as a result of spasticity, reduced muscle strength,
and limited coordination of body movement (McCrea, Eng et al. 2002). More
holistically, the patient’s sense of position in space – their sense of embodiment is
severely compromised as a result of their injury. There is much research in
neuroscience that suggests that under normal circumstances, information from the
human body’s different sensory modalities is correlated in a seamless manner
(Andersen, Snyder et al. 1997). For example, our sense of changes in the flow of visual
input is associated with the rate of change in bodily movement (viz. kinaesthesis)
(Warren 1995).
In traumatic brain injury, the main streams of sensory information that contribute
to the patient’s sense of embodiment (visual, auditory, tactile, and somatic) are
fragmented as a result of their injury. According to Holden, in order to rebuild bodysense and the ability to effect action, the damaged motor system must receive varied
13
but correlated forms of sensory input during the early phase of recovery; this is seen to
maximise the opportunity for recovery (Holden 2005). From this we may conclude that
multimedia environments that can help a traumatic brain injured patient correlate a
sense of embodiment may assist in the acquisition of movement skills.
In summary, in this section I have provided an introductory overview of
computer-mediated interventions for disability and the benefits of virtual reality
technology in traumatic brain injury rehabilitation. Rizzo highlights the importance of
designing ecologically valid virtual environments. This raised the issue of designing
user interfaces for patients to relearn movement skills in ways that can be transferred to
the real world. Developers of interactive computer systems for movement rehabilitation
are often constrained to use conventional desktop interfaces. These computer
interfaces often fall short of fostering natural user interaction that translates into the
relearning of body movement for TBI patients. User interfaces that can help the patient
to correlate a sense of embodiment may assist in the acquisition of movement skills.
For this reason it is important to understand what embodiment is, and why and how it is
being applied to the field of human computer interaction. In the next section I will
introduce the field of human computer interaction and embodied interaction design
approaches.
2.3
Human computer interaction
Understanding how users interact with computers and new technology is
representative of a larger research problem in human computer interaction (HCI). The
main objective of HCI is to improve the interaction between users and computers
through the design of user interfaces for interactive media applications. In my review, I
find that most HCI research does not take place under a single, unifying paradigm.
Rather, HCI provides many theories developed by a diverse range of related research
fields such as computer science, graphic design, industrial design, behavioural science,
psychology, phenomenology and art (Ghaoui 2006).
However, according to Shaleph O’Neil, HCI is largely considered from a
cognitive science model informed by perception and cognition theory (O'Neil 2008).
There is much work in HCI based on models of how the mind works. O’Neil states that
the leading theory of perception, which is at the root of the cognitive psychological
approach to HCI, is Representationalism, which holds that our perceptual systems
operate in similar ways to computers. The cognitive approach to HCI models the human
14
mind and body as information processing systems much like computers. For example,
Donald Norman was a great exponent of models of perception and cognition to
describe the nature of human computer interaction (Norman 2002). He asserts that, like
computers, we have input and output units (the senses and the limbs), a central
processing unit (the brain), and memory for storing information that can be manipulated
inside the processing unit.
A critique of this view emerged within human computer interaction as it evolved
to face new challenges. Winograd and Flores attacked the ‘rationalist tradition’ of
cognitive sciences (Winograd and Flores 1987). Winograd and Flores argued that
cognitive scientific and rationalist approaches to the computer are fundamentally flawed
because they are essentially reductionist in character. By this they mean that cognitive
approach defined our reality too narrowly, in order to cope with complexity. As an
alternative, Winograd and Flores offered the phenomenological theory of Heidegger’s
‘being in time’ or ‘being-in-the-world’ as an approach to design. O’Neil discusses how
this phenomenological approach challenged the dominance of the mind-body split of
the rationalist cognitive approaches. This debate is useful as it draws our attention to
HCI research based on phenomenology that emphasise human action (including
cognition) as embodied actions.
2.3.1
The embodied approach to human computer interaction
According to O’Neil the notion of embodiment in cognitive science has shifted
human computer interaction away from modeling complex cognitive mental processes
as the basis of understanding interaction. Rather, embodiment has shifted HCI toward
reinstating the body as the central site where interaction occurs (O'Neil 2008). This shift
has been fundamental to building new theories for HCI from ideas that have developed
out of Gibson’s ecological psychology (Gibson 1979), and other strands of
phenomenological thought such as Heidegger, Schutz and Merleau-Ponty.
There is much work from the cognitive sciences that shows how spatial and
even linguistic concepts are assembled from action or draw meaning by virtue of being
grounded by the moving and feeling body (Barsalou 2008) (Glenberg and Kashak
2002). For example, terms like ‘feeling down’, ’on top of the world’, and ‘behind the
eight-ball’ all seem to be derived from our previous experience of real-world interactions
with objects and environments. According to psychologist James Gibson, the term
’embodiment’ concerns the reciprocal relationship that exists between mind, biology
15
and the environment (Gibson 1979). The central point of Gibson’s theory was his
explicit refusal of the dichotomy between action and perception. Gibson states “So we
must perceive in order to move, but we must also move in order to perceive” (ibid
p.223). Put simply, the notion of embodiment foregrounds the way the human body
processes information and makes sense of the world (Anderson 2003). The term
‘embodied cognition’ is used to capture this seamless relationship between the
performer, the task at hand, and the environment (Garbarini and Adenzato 2004). A
mental construct or concept gains structure from the experiences that gave rise to it
(Mandler 1992). This embodied view of human performance is consistent with trends in
human computer interaction.
According to O’Neil the notion of ‘embodiment’ has grown in influence with
respect to the design of interactive systems. This can be seen in the diverse range of
research that is contributing to the field of embodied interaction. For example, O’Neil
draws on phenomenology, the ecological theory of Gibson, and semiotic theory as a
way to understand embodied interaction and meaning in new media (O'Neil 2008). Dag
Svanæs promoted the application of phenomenology of Merleau-Ponty to understand
interactivity (Svanæs 2000). He notes phenomenology’s first-person focus of the lived
body and its relation to the environment enables the understanding of interaction from
the user’s perspective. Eva Hornecker et al. proposed ‘embodied facilitation’ as a major
theme in her framework for the design of tangible interaction systems. She describes
how the configuration of material objects and space affects and directs emerging group
behaviour (Hornecker 2005) (Hornecker and Buur 2006).
Kinaesthetic aspects of technology interactions have been explored by
researchers such as Tom Djajadiningrat et al. (Djajadiningrat, Matthews et al. 2007),
and Astrid Larssen et al. (Larssen, Robertson et al. 2007). Their approach to interaction
design takes into account a perceptual-motor view of how the human body establishes
relationships with computer systems. More recently the aesthetic aspects of humancomputer interaction are explored by designers such as (Petersen, Iversen et al. 2004)
(Locher, Overbeeke et al. 2009) (McCarthy, Wright et al. 2008). This strand of research
describes phenomenon related to user experience termed as ‘aesthetic interaction’.
According to this view the aesthetics of an artifact emerge out of a dynamic interaction
between a user and an interactive system. Aesthetic interaction is conceptualised in
terms of a pragmatist aesthetic account of human experience. According to McCarthy et
al. the pragmatic approach emphasises the felt-life of the user.
16
Several researchers in human computer interaction point out that Paul Dourish
is particularly notable in his sustained attempt to describe the nature of computer user
experience as an embodied phenomenon (O'Neil 2008) (Djajadiningrat, Matthews et al.
2007) (Hornecker 2005). Dourish explores the role of embodiment in the design of
interactive technologies (Dourish 2001). He provides a foundational understanding of
embodied interaction toward a way to conceptualise a design framework. This design
framework is focused on a first-person, lived experience in relation to a computer
environment. His framework is used in a practical way to understand the design
opportunities of embodied interaction in ways that focus on tangible user interfaces,
physical representation, and social interaction.
For example, according to Dourish the ‘tangible computing’ approach to
interaction design capitalises on our physical skills and our familiarity with real-world
objects. Tangible user interfaces (TUIs), for instance, aim to exploit a multitude of
human sensory channels otherwise neglected in conventional interfaces and can
promote rich and dexterous interaction (Ishii and Ullmer 1997). TUIs are physical
objects that may be used to represent, control and manipulate computer environments.
This represented a major transition from the graphical user interface (GUI) paradigm of
desktop computers to interfaces that transform the physical world of the user into a
computer interface. The Nintendo Wii remote controller could be considered a tangible
user interface.
To conclude, in this section I introduced the field of human-computer interaction
as a way to explore an embodied view of human performance with computers.
Embodied interaction is seen as fundamental to ways of theorising the relationships
between embodied actions and technology design and use. We have seen that Dourish
et al. share a realisation that the body constitutes our very possibilities for interaction in,
and knowledge of, the world. Their research suggests that the basis of interaction
design should focus on a first-person, lived, body experience and its relation to the
environment. An embodied approach to user interaction may assist me to design
computer interfaces that can help traumatic brain injured patients correlate a sense of
embodiment. In the next section I will provide examples of artists and rehabilitation
therapists who explore embodied interactive user experiences as an aesthetic approach
to their work.
17
2.4
Embodied interaction in new media art & design for rehabilitation
In parallel to the body of HCI research, interactive media artists have made
significant contributions to development of physical interfaces and embodied interactive
experiences. Rather than celebrate the perceived bodiless existence once supported by
virtual reality technology where the user ‘disappears’ into a virtual environment through
a given apparatus, they strive to question the effects of technology by making the
viewer question the mediation of user interfaces and their own embodied experience.
According to artist and media theorist Anna Munster, various artists over the
years have responded to the appearance of new technology in uniquely concrete and
physical ways (Munster 2006). Various artists and designers have engaged
embodiment and the technologised body, investigating how technology changes our
understanding of the human senses. These approaches are primarily driven from
aesthetic concerns which locate how the human body interacts with technology.
For example, this approach is reflected in the work of artist and technologist
Myron Krueger, who provides us with an example of embodied performance in media
art through his art work VIDEOPLACE (Krueger, 1991) pp. 33-64. Krueger speculated
that this particular work could be used in the service of traumatic brain injury movement
rehabilitation (ibid: pp. 197-198). Krueger developed a computer vision system as an
interface to track the body gestures of users interacting with VIDEOPLACE. This
interface could be programmed to be aware of the space surrounding the user and
respond to their behaviour in a direct manner. Participants could move virtual objects
around the screen, change the objects' colours, and generate electronic sounds simply
by changing their gesture, posture and expression to interact with the on-screen graphic
objects. Here, Krueger explored embodiment between people and machines by
focusing his artwork on the human experience of interaction and the interactions
enabled by the environment.
In recent years, there has been considerable interest in combining media art and
interactive technology as a means to engage people in physical therapy (Brooks and
Hasselblad 2004). For example, technological and creative elements of Krueger’s work
can be seen in the genealogy of recent rehabilitation systems that provide playful and
creative experiences for disabled participants. Artist Tony Brooks et al. developed an
abstract audiovisual art work that aimed to enhance the quality of life for severely
disabled children (Brooks, Camurri et al. 2002) (Hasselblad, Petersson et al. 2007).
18
Simple movements and gestures of the user body are used to control abstract
audiovisual virtual environments. Brooks et al focus on playful and creative experiences
for disabled participants. Referring to these environments as ‘aesthetic resonance
environments’ , they write that “the response to an intent is so immediate and
aesthetically pleasing as to make one forget the physical movement (and often effort)
involved in conveying the intention” (Brooks, Camurri et al. 2002).
In an analysis of their work, they point to the motivational potential of the
medium in the form of novelty and curiosity through self-expression within an interactive
environment (Brooks, Camurri et al. 2002). They observe that the audiovisual feedback
in their virtual environment is so compelling that the user is motivated to reach new
dimensions of expression through curiosity and exploration. The application enables
severely disabled patients to become artistic creators of image and sound compositions
through user interaction and real-time audiovisual feedback.
In a different approach with impaired children, Sue Cobb et al. (Cobb, Mellett et
al. 2007) use computer vision technology to track the beams of handheld flashlight
torches to activate audiovisual content and projected special effects. The technology
brings to life objects and areas of the environment merely by shining a torch in a
desired direction. This form of user interaction provides means for the children to
explore their immediate environment through physical and tangible interaction. Their
work was shown to effectively support body awareness and movement in children with
severe neuro-motor disabilities.
To conclude this section, I have introduced Krueger et al. who explore the
experience of embodied user interaction through creativity and play. Krueger et al.
suggest that interactive media art has great potential to empower those with disabilities
to increasingly engage with the world around them in ways never before achievable.
The issue of maintaining user engagement underlines the importance of designing
therapeutic tasks and environments that can be presented in an aesthetically
meaningful and stimulating way. Maximising a patient’s engagement in relevant and
pleasurable activities may complement existing, often tedious, approaches to
rehabilitation.
19
2.5
Conclusions
To conclude, in this chapter I provided a broad introductory overview of
interactive computer mediated technologies for rehabilitation. According to Cobb et al.,
this research community has embraced a broad range of technology offering users’
interfaces to, and interaction with, multimedia computers, virtual and real environments
(Cobb and Sharkey 2007). A substantial body of evidence suggests that interactive
technologies can provide alternative therapeutic solutions that support individuals with
disabilities. In particular virtual reality has been shown to improve performance and
manual dexterity in patients suffering from traumatic brain injury (Holden 2005).
However, the ecological validity of virtual environments is questioned; that is, the
degree of relevance or similarity that a virtual environment has relative to the ‘real’
world. For example, conventional computer interfaces such as mouse and keyboard do
not represent how we interact with real environments. These interfaces may distort the
relearning of movement for traumatic brain injured patients. Conventional interfaces
shift the interaction from perceptual-motor actions to cognitive decision processes
(Djajadiningrat, Matthews et al. 2007).
Albert Rizzo suggests the development of naturalistic interfaces for user
interaction is of vital importance to optimise performance and improve access for
patients with cognitive and motor impairments (Rizzo 2005). Opportunities for patient
interaction with a virtual environment (e.g. body movement, object manipulation) could
be designed to be comparable to similar opportunities in the real world and thus
enhance learning. However in traumatic brain injury, the main streams of sensory
information that contribute to their sense of embodiment are fragmented as a result of
their injury. We may speculate the design of user interaction and the user interface that
can correlate our sense of embodiment may assist in the acquisition of movement skills
that transfer to the real world. In this regard, design that supports an embodied view of
performance is of particular interest.
The notion of embodiment foregrounds the way the human body processes
information and makes sense of the world (Anderson 2003). We have seen Dourish et
al. argue that the basis of human computer interaction should focus on a first-person,
lived, body experience and its relation to the environment. The embodied interaction
strand of HCI research emphasises human action as embodied actions. According to
20
O’Neil, this theoretical approach instates the body as the central site where user
interaction occurs with computer systems (O'Neil 2008).
Human computer interaction designers are striving to link the user’s physical
environment and the body with computer environments through the user interface.
According to Dourish, the embodied approach to interaction design capitalises on our
physical skills and our familiarity with real-world objects. My challenge is to synthesis an
embodied approach to user interaction to create a conceptual framework for the design
of my project. An embodied approach may begin to address the ecological concerns of
therapists who use virtual environments that aim to foster the relearning of movement in
TBI patients.
O’Neil suggests that Dourish’s notion of embodiment is useful to conceptualise
design approaches that focus on physical aspects of user interaction (O'Neil 2008).
Dourish’s insight opens up the way for how we conceive of user experiences in
computer interaction. Therefore in Chapter 3 I will explore Dourish’s five foundations of
embodied interaction in more detail to inform the conceptual and critical framework of
my exegesis. Dourish’s foundations may provide me with a design framework for my
project.
21
Chapter 3:
Conceptual Framework:
According to human computer interaction designer Paul Dourish, how
may we define the embodied nature of user experience with interactive
media?
3.1
Introduction
One of the more important observations in Chapter 2 was that developers of
interactive computer systems for movement rehabilitation are often constrained to using
conventional desktop interfaces. These interfaces often fall short of fostering natural
user interaction that translates into the relearning of body movement for brain injured
patients. This raises the issue of how to design user interfaces that might correlate a
patient’s sense of embodiment in ways that help in the acquisition of movement skills.
For this reason it is important to understand what embodiment interaction is, and why
and how it is being applied to the field of human computer interaction. In this regard
Paul Dourish is notable in his sustained attempt to describe the nature of computer user
experience as an embodied phenomenon. Therefore, according to Paul Dourish, how
may we define the nature of embodied user experience with interactive media?
To address this question, I will lay out Dourish’s key foundations of embodied
interaction. Dourish describes five foundations which he suggests play a central role in
understanding embodied interaction: ‘ontology’, ‘intersubjectivity’, ‘intentionality’,
‘coupling’, and ‘metaphor’. Figure 2 outlines Dourish’s five interrelated theoretical
perspectives informing the conceptual and critical framework of this exegesis.
Figure 2: Diagram showing the relationship between Dourish’s five main foundations of
embodied interaction used to develop my project documented in this exegesis.
22
In Section 3.2, I will discuss Dourish’s notion of embodied interaction. I will
introduce two related streams of human computer interaction research in ‘tangible and
ubiquitous computing’. According to Dourish, embodied interaction directly relates to
these areas of research. In Section 3.3, I will explore each of Dourish’s five foundations
of embodied interaction in more detail.
3.2
Embodied Interaction according to Paul Dourish
Dourish describes embodied interaction as an approach that hinges on the
relationship between user action and meaning. In his book Where the Action Is: The
Foundations of Embodied Interaction, Dourish asks which sets of human skills
computing devices should be designed to exploit. He states “We need new ways for
interacting with computers, ways that are better tuned to our needs and abilities” (ibid.
p.2). According to Dourish, the only way to make this possible is to better understand
the nature of our world, that is, the lived world of our experiences. He explains:
“As physical beings, we are unavoidably enmeshed in a world of physical facts.
We cannot escape the world of physical objects that we lift, sit on, and push
around, nor the consequences of physical phenomena such as gravity, inertia,
mass and friction. But our daily experience is social as well as physical. We
interact daily with other people, and we live in a world that is socially
constructed. Elements of our daily experience – family, technology, highway,
invention, child store, and politician – gain their meaning from the network of
social interactions in which they figure. So, the social and the physical are
intertwined and inescapable aspects of our everyday experience.” (ibid. p 99)
Here, Dourish draws our attention to the complex ways we make meaning from
our everyday interaction with the world around us. This leads him to question whether
our daily experience and interactions within physical and social realities could be
exploited to make interacting with computers more familiar to us.
Dourish hypothesises that the underlying theme that unifies the social and
physical aspects of our everyday life is the notion of ‘embodiment’. For Dourish,
embodiment does not just mean a manifestation of our physical reality, but “being
grounded in everyday, mundane experience” (ibid. p.125). By this, he implies that we
create meaning by engaging with, and acting in, the everyday world. Our ability to act in
and upon our environment is what gives our lives meaning. He suggests the notion of
23
embodiment may provide insight into the nature of user experience and the user’s body
in relation to interaction with computers.
To clarify the notion of embodiment, Dourish attempts to distinguish between
user interactions that occur in the real world from those that are computer simulations of
the real world. Dourish references virtual reality to highlight this difference. As
previously discussed in Chapter 2, the objective of VR is to immerse the senses of the
user in a three dimensional virtual environment. These simulated environments
primarily exploit the user’s audiovisual perceptions of the real world (Burdea and Coiffet
2003). Head-mounted displays and large wrap-around computer screens direct the
user’s cognitive and perceptual attention to a virtual environment. A virtual environment
exploits our familiarity with the structure of our three dimensional world through
computer-generated perspective geometry that simulates a real-world environment.
Dourish suggests virtual reality interfaces make users less aware of the physical
world around them. Djajadiningrat et al. agree that virtual reality neglects our embodied
view of the world (Djajadiningrat, Matthews et al. 2007). They state:
“VR environments which generate shared 3D virtual spaces, objects and actors,
re-present a re-constructed world that, no matter how intricately detailed, shares
only selective and superficial similarity to the world in which we have embodied
familiarity. In this sense, they cannot seamlessly enable us to transfer our
understanding of the world and its various meanings to our interaction with the
system.” (ibid. p. 61)
Dourish elaborates further that virtual reality user interfaces do not necessarily
constitute how we act in the real-world:
“… in an immersive virtual-reality environment, users are disconnected
observers of a world they do not inhabit directly. They peer out at it, figure out
what’s going on, decide on some course of action, and enact it through the
interface of the keyboard or the data-glove, carefully monitoring the result to see
if it turns out the way they expected. Our experience in the everyday world is not
of that sort.” (Dourish 2001) p. 102
According to Dourish, the difference between our ‘inhabited’ interaction in the
real world and the disconnected user observation and user control of virtual reality is at
24
the centre of his proposition for embodied interaction. He states, “We inhabit our bodies
and they in turn inhabit the world, with seamless connection back and forth” (ibid. p
102). Dourish’s central concern of embodiment is that we encounter phenomena
directly rather than abstractly, occurring in real time and real space.
Dourish suggests a form of human computer interaction research called
‘tangible and ubiquitous computing’ to reflect this central concern with embodiment.
According to Dourish, tangible and ubiquitous computing is dedicated to re-considering
the nature and design of computer interfaces, so that we can bring the computer more
fully into our world (Dourish 2001). He elaborates that tangible and ubiquitous
computing:
“…attempts to capitalize on our physical skills and our familiarity with real-world
objects. It also tries to make computation manifest to us in the world in the same
way as we encounter other phenomena, both as a way of making computation fit
more naturally with the everyday world, and as a way of enriching our
experience with the physical. It attempts to move computation and interaction
out of the world of abstract cognitive process and into the same phenomenal
world as other sorts of interaction.” (ibid. pp. 102-103)
Dourish notes that his notion of embodiment is particularly effective in
understanding tangible and ubiquitous computing where the embodied behaviours of
users take place. By this, Dourish means tangible and ubiquitous computing relies on
the tangibility of user interfaces and full-body interaction that gives material and spatial
form to our experiences with computers. For example, in traditional desktop computing,
the screen is merely a window through which we perceive the digital world. According to
Dourish, designing user interfaces requires not only the design of the virtual
environment, but also the physical, spatial, and social aspects of user interaction in
relation to computer environment. Tangible and ubiquitous computing uses real-world
objects to direct modes of user interaction. As indicated in the introduction, I will discuss
tangible and ubiquitous computing in the next two sections.
3.2.1
Tangible computing
There are several research efforts that link physical user interfaces to
applications in virtual environments. Hiroshi Ishii (Ishii and Ullmer 1997), Brygg Ullmer
(Ullmer 2002), George Fitzmaurice (Fitzmaurice, Ishii et al. 1995), and Kenneth Fishkin
25
(Fishkin 2004) are pioneers of tangible computing. Their work seeks to extend and
enhance user interaction beyond conventional user input devices such as keyboards
and mice. In their seminal paper on ‘tangible bits’ Ishii and Ullmer aimed to design a
technology that bridged the gap between the computer world and the physical
environment by making digital information (bits) tangible. Ishii et al. sought to create a
new form of human computer interaction that they called tangible user interfaces (TUIs).
Ishii et al. defined TUIs as interfaces that “augment the real physical world by
coupling digital information to everyday physical objects and architectural
environments” (Ishii and Ullmer 1997). Their approach to interface design aimed to
exploit a multitude of human sensory channels otherwise neglected in conventional
interfaces, and to allow rich and dexterous skilled interaction. They suggested that we
may be losing the rich culture and language we have developed in the past when we
ignore the aesthetic richness that comes of manipulating physical objects in the real
world, and replace it instead with a flood of digital mediating technologies. Counter to
this trend, Ishii et al. recognised that computers can be embodied in physical devices
that could exist as tangible artifacts of the physical world.
3.2.2
Ubiquitous computing
Mark Weiser and Pierre Wellner pioneered ubiquitous computing in a research
program at the Xerox PARC Computer Science Labs (Weiser 1991) (Wellner 1993).
Weiser conceived of a new way of thinking about computers in the world. His approach
takes into account the natural human environment and places the computer system into
the background. Weiser argued for a computer system that invisibly enhanced the world
that already exists rather than one that demands high levels of attention focused on a
computer screen. Weiser envisaged computing ubiquitously incorporated into many
common facets of people’s environment, operating in a transparent fashion, seamlessly
integrated into the objects and activities of everyday life. He coined the term ’embodied
virtuality’ to refer to the many ways in which computer data could be brought into the
physical world.
Similarly, Wellner sought to combine the real with the virtual by augmenting the
physical world with computational properties in what later came to be known as
augmented reality. Wellner developed the DigitalDesk, which he described as
analogous to a physical desktop that includes papers, pens and other office desk items
that were used to interface with the virtual environment (Newman and Wellner 1992)
26
(Wellner 1993). Wellner envisioned making a digital desk analogous to the physical
desk. Users could take advantage of their natural hand and arm skills and knowledge of
manipulating multiple physical objects to make the computer more familiar, and thus
requiring less training to operate.
The implementation consisted of a video projector and video camera pointing
downward over the desk. The computer video camera interpreted the user’s hand
gestures and movement of physical artifacts. The graphical computer desktop was
projected downwards onto the desk surface. The user could interact with projected
digital documents by manipulating physical documents and office items to control the
virtual environment. The result was a computationally enhanced desktop to support
interaction with both paper and electronic documents (Figure 3). Digital documents
could be moved around and edited using hand gestures tracked by the video camera.
Wellner explored the boundaries of direct computer manipulation beyond more common
forms of interaction (keyboard and mouse). He investigated the possibilities of
manipulating both real and digital objects using tactile manipulation of real artifacts
augmented with electronic properties.
Figure 3: Images of Pierre Wellner’s DigitalDesk (removed due to copyright restrictions)
27
In summary, Weiser, Wellner, Ishii et al. believed that to support human activity,
computing would move into the environment in which the activity took place. They
considered how computing would manifest itself in the physical environment by making
the physicality of the computation and interaction central to their research. The result is
an approach to human computer interaction that has a direct focus on the interface
between physical and virtual environments.
We may conclude along with Dourish that tangible and ubiquitous computing
encompasses a broad range of characteristics that synthesises views on embodied
interaction (Dourish 2001). He states that ‘embodied interaction’ is not simply a form of
interaction that is embodied, “but rather an approach to design and analysis of
interaction that takes embodiment to be central to, even constitutive of the whole
phenomenon of user interaction” (ibid. p102). The approach to tangible and ubiquitous
computing relates to the tangibility and materiality of the user interface, physical
embodiment of data, and the human body as an essential part of user interaction and
user experience.
3.3
The foundations of Embodied Interaction according to Paul Dourish
Dourish notes that embodiment is a common theme running through philosophy
and in particular phenomenology. To establish a philosophical position, Dourish
examines the literature of four phenomenological thinkers – Edmund Husserl, Martin
Heidegger, Alfred Shutz, and Maurice Merleau-Ponty (Dourish 2001). The phenomenon
of embodiment is concerned with how we make the world around us meaningful in
relation to how we act within it. Dourish defines embodiment and embodied interaction
as:
“Embodiment is the property of our engagement with the world that allows us to
make it meaningful.” (ibid. p. 126)
“Embodied interaction is the creation, manipulation, and sharing of meaning
through engaged interaction with artifacts.” (ibid. p. 126)
Dourish identifies that the relationship between ‘action’ and ‘meaning’ is central
to embodied interaction. He states “The core idea of an embodied interface is the ability
to turn action into meaning” (ibid. p. 183). How embodied interaction turns action into
meaning is part of the larger system of ontology, intersubjectivity, and intentionality.
28
Dourish describes five foundations of how meaning manifests itself through
‘ontology’, ‘intersubjectivity’, ‘intentionality’, ‘coupling’, and ‘metaphor’. He suggests
these foundations play a central role in understanding embodied interaction. The
foundations are particularly effective in theorising the relationships between embodied
actions and technology design and use. In the next section, I will begin to lay out
Dourish’s foundations for embodied interaction and their implications for design.
3.3.1
Dourish’s first foundation: Ontology
Dourish explains that ontology is a branch of metaphysics concerned with the
existence and identification of objects and entities (Dourish 2001) pp. 129 -131. He
states “…ontology addresses the question of how we can individuate the world, or
distinguish between one entity or another; how we can understand the relationships
between different entities or class of entity; and so forth. Ontology deals with how we
can describe the ‘furniture of the world’ (ibid. p.129). According to Dourish, ontology
essentially arises from a state of awareness in which we continually assess our
relationship to the objects in the world. In short, we uncover meaning in the world
through our interactions with it.
Dourish suggests the ways in which we understand the ontological structure of
the world relate to James Gibson’s ecological term of ‘affordance’. As discussed in
Chapter 2, Gibson was a psychologist who explored the relationships that exist
between the mind, biology, and the environment (Gibson 1979). Gibson was primarily
concerned with visual perception; with how living creatures can see, reorganise what
they see, and act on it. Gibson posited that ‘seeing’ and ‘acting’ are deeply connected.
He suggests an affordance is a three-way relationship between the environment, the
organism, and an activity. In other words, an affordance refers to opportunities for
interaction that meaningful objects provide in our immediate environment and in relation
to our sensorimotor capacities. According to Gibson, this relationship is central to
ecological psychology in the way we might understand how an organism lives and acts
in the world. In short, an affordance is a property of an environment that affords action
to an organism.
Donald Norman makes considerable use of Gibson’s notion of affordance in the
design of everyday products and computer interfaces (Norman 2002). Norman provides
many examples of affordances that explore the relationship between form and function
29
drawn from the physical environment. He suggests how affordances can make the use
of a device clear to the user. For example, “a chair affords (‘is for’) support and,
therefore, affords sitting. Knobs are for turning. Slots are for inserting things into. Balls
are for throwing or bouncing” (ibid. p9). Norman suggests that when affordances are
taken advantage of, the user knows what actions they can perform just by looking.
Dourish’s understanding of ontology ultimately leads him to question how one
might ‘design’ ontology for computer systems (Dourish 2001). There are three terms
that become prominent in Dourish’s discussion of ontology; the first is ‘individuate’, the
second is ‘tailor’, the third, ‘participate’.
Individuate
According to Dourish to ‘individuate’ in design is to enable the user to
differentiate between entities. For example, different shapes could be used to
distinguish and differentiate between variations of user interfaces. The user could infer
different relationships and meaning from the shape.
Tailor
The second aspect is the ability for the user to ‘tailor’ the environment. Dourish
suggests an interactive system should be flexible and capable of being tailored in ways
that engage users in interaction and that enable them to create their own meaning. No
two people experience the world in exactly the same way. As such, certain aspects of a
computer environment could be scaled and adjusted to the experience of the user. For
example, a user may be able to reorganise the interface of computer aided design
software to suit the commands they might often use to perform their work.
Dourish suggests the ‘configurability of space’ is an aspect of tangible
computing that enables users to tailor the environment. Tangible user interfaces can be
distributed and rearranged by the user to tailor and adapt a computer environment to
their needs and to suit the task at hand (ibid. p. 159). Wellner’s DigitalDesk discussed in
Section 3.2 provides us with an example (Wellner 1993). Here, users can reconfigure
physical objects, such as pens and paper, to tailor the computer environment to their
needs. By reconfiguring the spatial arrangement of objects, users can also reconfigure
the computer environment.
According to Rizzo, the ability to tailor an environment to the capabilities of a
patient is a key strength of virtual reality technology over conventional movement
30
therapies (Rizzo 2005). For example, a task could be tailored to a level of difficulty most
attainable and comfortable for the patient. A gradual progression of difficulty can be
introduced by the therapist as the patient improves their performance.
Participate
Dourish suggests that an ontological structure is an emergent phenomenon that
arises as a result of user participation with an entity. Users can individuate and tailor an
environment through their participation. He states, “Embodiment is not a property of
systems, technologies or artifacts; it is a property of interaction. It is rooted in the ways
in which people (and technologies) participate in the world” (ibid. p. 189). According to
Dourish, user participation and meaning is constantly evolving and subject to revision.
Dourish argues that fluid, negotiated boundaries between users and systems rather
than rigid, fixed ones are preferable participatory structures.
We may conclude that Dourish’s notion of ontology is concerned with how a
user may come to understand and make meaning of a computer environment through
their interaction with it. He suggests that a design may reflect a particular set of
ontological concerns on the part of the designer, but ultimately it cannot provide
ontology for a user. In design, meaning manifests itself as a process of ‘individuation’,
‘affordance’, and ‘tailorability’ of the interface through user ‘participation’.
3.3.2
Dourish’s second foundation: Intersubjectivity
According to Dourish, intersubjectivity is concerned with how users might share
meaning (Dourish 2001) pp. 131-134. Dourish notes the problem of intersubjectivity is
that, while we might all understand the world from an ontological perspective, we do not
necessarily share the same understanding because we do not have access to each
others’ thoughts. Dourish suggests that the problem of intersubjectivity emerges in two
ways in the design of interactive systems. Both are instances of where the user of an
interactive system needs to understand the intentions and motivations of another party.
The first instance concerns communication between a designer and a user, and
how it is conveyed through an interactive system. Dourish suggests that an interactive
system should reveal how it should be used in ways in which the designer intended it to
be used. Dourish states:
31
“The designer must somehow communicate to a user a set of constraints and
expectations about the how the design should be used. The system can be
thought of as a medium through which the designer and a user communicate.
The designer’s intentions are communicated through the form of the interactive
system itself, and through the ways in which its functionality is offered.” (ibid. p.
132)
The second instance of intersubjectivity for Dourish relates to the
communication between users, through the system. Dourish suggests that this is not
about person-to-person communication through email or video conferencing, but rather
how people come to develop and communicate shared ways of doing tasks with
interactive systems. He suggests that computer systems come to be “‘appropriated’ by
their users and are put to work within particular patterns of practice” (ibid. p. 133).
There are three terms that become prominent in Dourish’s discussion of
intersubjectivity. They are ‘constraints’, ‘expectations’, and ‘appropriation’. Each of
these terms describes how meaning is shared between users and designers.
Constraints
Dourish notes that constraints are an important part of tangible computing
design (Dourish 2001). Drawing on Gibson’s notion of affordances, Norman suggests
logical constraints are properties of an object that are designed to constrain possible
operations (Norman 2002). Norman suggests a logical constraint limits an object’s
relationship to other objects, and reduces the number of alternative actions that can be
performed by the user in any particular situation (ibid. p. 86). Designers strive to make
explicit the functionality of a user interface through its design; a logical constraint directs
users away from inconsistent uses of an artifact. A simple example of a constraint might
be the physical features of two objects that interlock together in a certain way. The user
can only connect them in specific ways that the designer intended in order for the user
to perform a certain task or function.
Expectations
According to Dourish, expectations fundamentally reveal themselves over the
course of the interaction between the user and a computer system (Dourish 2001).
Users can gain an understanding of an interactive environment when the consequences
of their actions become expected. In a simple example, a user may come to expect a
graphic mouse cursor to move across a computer display when they move the
32
computer mouse. In short, meaning is created when the computer responds in an
expected way to the action performed by the user.
Appropriation
Dourish suggests people appropriate technology in the creation of working
practices so that the two evolve around each other (Dourish 2001). According to
Dourish, how users appropriate a system is shaped by how they select, interpret, share,
understand, and put information to use in the course of carrying out their task whereby
meaning is created through shared use of a system. This includes “what decisions
people make about when and how to use the system, what expectation they have of
when the system is useful and what sort of information it contains, what they know
about what other people do with system, and so on.” (ibid. p. 133). Dourish highlights
that designers are often surprised at the uses to which their artifacts are put, or
incorporated into the activity of users. He suggests “we need to be alert to ways in
which systems offer, to their users, the resources that will allow them to adapt and
appropriate it” (ibid. p. 171). The designer’s activities should be one “focused on the
resources that a design should provide for the users in order for them to appropriate the
artifact and incorporate it into their practice.” (ibid. p. 173) However, Dourish points out
that the ways users appropriate technology ultimately rest with them, and not the
designer.
3.3.3
Dourish’s third foundation: Intentionality
Dourish suggests that intentionality in philosophy proposes that the
‘directedness’ of meaning is a relationship between our thoughts, memories,
utterances, and their meaning (Dourish 2001) pp. 134-138. Dourish acknowledges that
this is probably the hardest area to understand because there are still continuing
debates in philosophy and cognitive science as to what constitutes intentionality. For
Dourish, intentionality is central to his understanding of embodied interaction.
Intentionality refers to how we create meaning from our action in the world. As
discussed in Chapter 2, thoughts or memories gain structure from the experiences that
gave rise to it. For example, the intentionality of language is assembled from action, or
draws meaning by virtue of being grounded by the moving and feeling body (Barsalou
2008) (Glenberg and Kashak 2002). Terms like ‘feeling down’, and ’behind the eightball’ are all intentional references. They are intentional meanings of things derived from
our previous experience of real-world interactions with objects and environments.
33
According to Dourish, interaction with computers carries with it intentional
connotations (Dourish 2001). The key feature of intentionality is how we act through
computer systems to achieve effects in the world. For Dourish, embodied interaction
places particular emphasis on user interaction as an activity in the world. “There is no
way to talk about action independently from meaning – not simply how action arises
from conscious intent, but, more significantly, how intentionality arises from actions in
the world” (ibid. p. 137). According to Dourish, intentionality provides a conceptual way
to understand how the elements of an interactive system can provide users with
meaning in the course of an activity. Through creating opportunities for action in a
computer system, the designer must also allow for effects on the world that user’s
actions are designed to cause. These resulting effects should allow users to create
meaning from them.
Donald Norman’s examination of the structure of an action is particularly
informative in further understanding the role of intentionality (Norman 2002) p. 46.
Norman breaks down the action system of an individual user into three main stages; the
goal or task that is to be achieved; executing an action to achieve the goal; and
evaluating the results of an action and its effect on the world. Norman suggests
intentionality bridges the gap between a goal and the execution of an action by
informing how one might plan to execute an action necessary to reach a goal.
Here, I find similarity between intentionality and the term ‘affordance’ in design.
As previously discussed, Dourish suggests that making explicit the function of an object
relates to James Gibson’s central term of ‘affordance’. An affordance refers to
opportunities for interaction that meaningful objects provide in our immediate
environment and in relation to our sensorimotor capacities. This relationship is central to
ecological psychology in the way we might understand how an organism lives and acts
in the world. In short, an affordance refers to the properties of an environment or object
that determines how it might be intentionally used. Making the function of an object
explicit is intentional.
3.3.4
Dourish’s fourth foundation: Coupling
Dourish brings ontology, intersubjectivity and intentionality together by
introducing the notion of ‘coupling’ (Dourish 2001) pp. 138 -142. Coupling is how an
intentional reference is made effective or maintained. Dourish provides an example:
34
“In the physical world, my actions can have a remote effect through a chain of
couplings, from one thing to another to another – perhaps from my hand to a
lever to a rock I want to move. As far as I am concerned, I am acting on the
rock; from my point of view, the rock and the lever are coupled. This idea of
coupling is not simply a physical phenomenon but an intentional one too. My
actions are outwardly directed, through a chain of associations.” (ibid. p. 138)
For Dourish, the effective use of any tool requires the user to continually
engage, separate, and reengage with it. Using his example, this process might involve
the decision to start using the lever; pick it up and orient it correctly; adjust the angle of
leverage in relation to the rock, perhaps put it down again. This is a process of continual
user engagement and reengagement with the lever. The user needs to be aware of the
lever, how it sits in their hand, how heavy it is and so forth. Dourish suggests when
performing the task, such as moving the rock, the lever should ‘disappear’ into the
activity. At other moments, the user would have to be aware of the lever again as they
change their position in relation to the rock. According to Dourish being able to
continually engage, separate and reengage, that is, being able to control the coupling,
makes our use of equipment more effective.
There are two terms that become prominent in Dourish’s discussion of coupling.
The first term relates to computer ‘feedback’. Feedback displays information to the user
that they have performed some action and is coupled to the actions performed by the
user. The second term is ‘visibility’. Visibility of computer feedback provides users with a
level of awareness of their actions.
Feedback
To help us understand coupling we may consider computer feedback. Dourish
highlights that computer feedback provides augmentations of a user’s embodied activity
or practice. Feedback is a relationship between user input and computer output that
suggests something has occurred as a result of user interaction. The computer
feedback, in turn, can inform how the user responds in performing a subsequent action.
For example, moving a computer mouse should move the onscreen mouse cursor in a
corresponding fashion. The new position of the mouse cursor informs the user where to
move the mouse next. This feedback loop between the computer and the user is a
continually evolving communicative action. Dourish suggests that effective
communication relies on the ability of the user to control the medium, and that feedback
is an essential part of this control.
35
According to Holden, the provision of computer feedback is central to motor
learning (Holden 2005). Scientific evidence suggests that feedback can induce
profound changes to the brain at a cellular and synaptic level. Rizzo also reports that
feedback can make repetitive and tedious work of physical therapy more compelling
and interesting (Rizzo 2005). This suggests that feedback can provide audiovisual
rewards that may lead to increased levels of motivation in patients.
Norman states that ‘mapping’ is an essential part of feedback (Norman 2002) p.
75. According to Norman, mapping means the relationship between two entities. This
relationship involves an action performed by the user linked to some effect or result in
the world. Norman suggests effective mapping which links user action to immediate
feedback leads to the user understanding the consequences of their actions. Feedback
provides each user action with an immediate and obvious effect.
However, according to Dourish, coupling is not simply a matter of mapping a
user’s immediate activity at any one moment into some form of computer feedback
(Dourish 2001). But rather, “users can select from a variety of effective entities offered
to them, the ones that are relevant to their immediate activity and second, can put those
together in order to effect action” (ibid. p. 142). For example, the movement of a mouse
cursor is not the only representation the user’s attention might be drawn to. The user
may also direct their attention to other tasks such as opening a file, or sending an email
through the mouse cursor. In short, coupling is the action of binding entities together so
that they can operate together to provide a new set of functions.
Visibility
Dourish relates visibility to ‘feedback’ and ‘shared feedback’ in a collaborative
work setting (Dourish 2001). Feedback displays information to the user letting them
know they have performed some action. In shared feedback where there is more than
one user, all users will see the results of an action as they all see the same artifact.
Shared feedback allows groups of people to coordinate their activity together as
ongoing feature of their work. Both accounts make the system visible and intelligible to
the users, so that they can manage their actions appropriately to the current state of the
system.
According to Norman, visibility bridges the gulf between ‘execution’ and
‘evaluation’ in performing a task (Norman 2002). Execution relates to carrying out a
36
task. Evaluation relates to the user comparing what happened in the world with what
the user wanted to happen in performing a task. Norman suggests visibility acts in two
ways (ibid. p 183). Firstly, visibility can remind users of the possibilities for action in
execution of a task. Secondly, visibility of effects in the environment can enable users to
interpret and evaluate the consequences of their actions. Visibility makes the execution
and evaluation of a task visible to the user. In this way, users can learn the causal
relationships between actions and outcomes.
3.3.5
Dourish’s fifth foundation: Metaphor
According to Dourish, a metaphor may suggest some sort of action that can be
performed by the user. Dourish notes that user interface metaphors provide the best
uses of coupling in interactive systems. Metaphor and coupling provide ways for how
meaning is made manifest from moment to moment and turned to use. For example, we
come across metaphors of all sorts that describe the familiar aspects of the real world in
many user interfaces, such as windows, desktops, and buttons. Other metaphors in
user interfaces suggest actions such as ‘dragging’, ‘dropping’, ‘cut’, and ‘paste’. In
virtual reality, metaphors are used to guide actions and help users understand how to
interact with three-dimensional environments. These might be literal architectural
metaphors in the forms of streets, roads, doors, and buildings in a driving simulation.
Dourish argues:
“Metaphor is such a rich model for conveying ideas that it is quite natural that it
should be incorporated in the design of user interfaces. The use of metaphor
essentially extends the intentional range of systems by providing new ways to
conceive of one’s actions in the system, and providing new entities for us to be
directed toward.” (ibid. p. 143)
According to Dourish, “Systems or artifacts supporting embodied interaction
need to be designed with an orientation toward the multiple meanings that may be
conveyed through them” (ibid. p.167). Dourish suggests that meaning can be conveyed
in numerous ways, which can be approximately characterised as aspects of
representation of an entity along two dimensions – ‘iconic/symbolic’ and ‘object/action’.
Iconic/Symbolic
The first dimension describes a relationship between a representation, and
whatever it is supposed to represent. According to Dourish, a symbolic representation is
37
abstract, and does not necessarily represent the entity itself per se. Using Dourish’s
example; the number ‘1’ means the number one at a symbolic level. In contrast, an
iconic representation depicts the entity it is supposed to represent. For example, an
architectural drawing is an iconic representation of a building or structure due to the fact
that it is a depiction of the building it represents. The composition of the drawing
suggests a recognisable relationship to the planned building.
Object/action
The second dimension relates to the entity to which the representation refers
(Dourish 2001). “We distinguish between representations of objects – people and other
entities – on one hand, and of actions – events, operations, and behaviours – on the
other.” (ibid. p. 167). For example, in Wellner’s DigitalDesk, the physical user interface,
such as a pen, is more suggestive of an action that can be performed (Wellner 1993). I
can perform the action of picking up and writing with the pen. In contrast, the paper is
more suggestive of an object. The paper is designed to receive my applied action of
writing. However, both the pen and the paper can be perceived as both action and
object at varying levels.
For Dourish, an embodied interaction approach changes how designers
conceptualise the relationship between representation, objects and action (Dourish
2001). He suggests traditional design-approaches maintain clear distinctions between
object and action, and representation and object. According to Dourish, an entity can be
representational, object, and action simultaneously, carrying different meanings, values
and consequences.
“What embodied interaction adds to existing representational practice is the
understanding that representations are also themselves artifacts. Not only do
they allow users to ‘reach through’ and act upon an entity being represented, but
they can also themselves be acted upon – picked up, examined, manipulated,
and rearranged” (ibid. p. 169).
Dourish highlights the way artifacts can carry multiple meanings for users
according to the different ways they might be used, and that some, or all, aspects of
meaning might play a role at any given moment. To conclude, Dourish suggests the
designer of interactive systems needs to consider how representational effect is
embodied within an artifact, how different levels of representation can be manipulated,
and how the users control whether they are acting ‘on’ or ‘through’ an artifact.
38
3.4
Conclusions
In this chapter I have attempted to answer my first research question: ‘According
to Paul Dourish, how may we define the nature of embodied user experience with
interactive media?’ We began this chapter by exploring how Paul Dourish defines the
nature of embodied user experience with interactive media. Dourish turns our attention
to how we encounter the everyday world. His view of embodiment focuses on facets of
meaning and action which play a role in understanding embodied interaction. Dourish
recognises that his notion of embodiment is particularly effective in understanding
tangible and ubiquitous computing where the embodied behaviours of users take place.
Embodied behaviours occur in space (or the environment), through the body, and with
sustained engagement with physical artifacts. Tangible and ubiquitous computing relies
on the tangibility of user interfaces and full body interaction whereby the computer
respond in natural ways to physical user input.
According to Dourish, his perspective on embodied interaction begins to reveal
not just how we act on technology, but how we act through technology. Dourish’s view
focuses on facets of meaning which play a central role in understanding embodied
interaction. For Dourish, meaning involves a set of related but distinct phenomena,
including ontology, intersubjectivity and intentionality.
Ontology is concerned with how users may come to understand and make
meaning of a computer environment through our interaction with it. In design, meaning
manifests itself as a process of ‘individuation’, ‘affordance’ and ‘tailorability’ of the
interface, and through user ‘participation’.
Intersubjectivity is concerned with how users appropriate a system by how they
select, interpret, share, understand, and put information to use in the course of carrying
out their task whereby meaning is created through shared use of a system.
‘Constraints’, ‘expectations’, and ‘appropriation’ each describe how meaning is shared
between users and designers.
Intentionality concerns the directness of one’s actions and the effects that one’s
actions are designed to cause. According to Dourish, coupling is how an intention is
maintained and made effective. Coupling relates to ‘feedback’ and the ‘visibility’ of user
action possibilities and outcomes. Coupling brings together and manages the
39
relationship, i.e. the connection between individuating an artifact, directing an intention
toward the artifact, its effect on the world, and the people who witness the effect.
Metaphor extends the range of intentions by providing ways for users to orient
themselves toward an interactive system. Meaning can be characterised in approximate
ways as aspects of representation of an entity along two dimensions – ‘iconic/symbolic’
and ‘object/action’.
Each foundation offers design perspectives at an abstract conceptual level and
defines broad research concerns regarding the embodied nature of user experience.
However, presenting Dourish’s foundations is problematic. They overlap and interact in
ways that I find are not distinct. Each foundation generalises conceptual designapproaches but do not provide specific design recommendations. The foundations are
not prescriptive, and thus need to be interpreted, expanded, and appropriated for other
situations. It is therefore important to examine a case study to further explore the
techniques a designer applies as they relate to embodied interaction.
In the next chapter, I will use Dourish’s five foundations for embodied interaction
to analyse the techniques of artist Myron Krueger. Krueger provides us with an example
of embodied performance in media art through his work VIDEOPLACE. (Krueger, 1991)
pp. 33-64. Krueger explored embodiment between people and machines by focusing
his artwork on the human experience of interaction and of the interactions enabled by
the environment itself. I will consider each foundation as a starting point to discuss
design aspects of this case study.
40
Chapter 4:
Case Study:
How may we observe Dourish’s theory for embodied interaction in the
techniques of new media artist Myron Krueger?
4.1
Introduction
One of the key understandings in Chapter 3 was that Paul Dourish defines
embodiment as a relationship between action and meaning. His view focuses on facets
of action and meaning and how they play a role in understanding embodied interaction
with computer systems. Dourish’s definitions serve to explain, to relate, and develop an
approach to tangible and ubiquitous computing. Therefore it is likely that designers of
multimedia environments that link physical and virtual environments may relate to
Dourish’s notion of embodied interaction. It is important to examine a case study to
further explore techniques the designer applies to aspects of embodied interaction.
Artist and technologist Myron Krueger provides us with an example of embodied
performance in media art through his work VIDEOPLACE (Krueger, 1991: pp. 33–64).
As noted in Chapter 2, this case study has significant similarities to a number of current
researcher projects in the field of movement rehabilitation. How may we observe
Dourish’s theory for embodied interaction in the techniques of new media artist Myron
Krueger?
I will address this question by firstly discussing Krueger’s pioneering work
VIDEOPLACE in more detail. I will then relate to Dourish’s five foundations for
embodied interaction with Krueger’s techniques used to develop VIDEOPLACE.
Analysing Krueger’s design techniques through Dourish’s framework may inform my
own design approach.
4.2
An artificial reality: VIDEOPLACE
Myron Krueger is widely acknowledged for pioneering novel forms of human
computer interaction using video capture techniques that interpret full body movement.
In his book Artificial Reality II he describes an interactive virtual environment called
VIDEOPLACE (Krueger 1991). In developing VIDEOPLACE Krueger explored how
users interact with computers utilising a video capture technique that interprets the
body’s position relative to a computer simulated graphical environment. Krueger coined
the term ‘artificial reality’ that he defines as “a medium of experience”:
41
“An artificial reality perceives human actions in terms of the body’s relationship
to a simulated world. It then generates sights and sounds, and other sensations
that make the illusion of participating in that world convincing.” (ibid. p. xii)
The VIDEOPLACE installation consists of a large rear projection screen and
video camera which the participant faces. Using a high contrast background behind the
participant, the live video camera digitises the participant’s silhouette, which in turn is
projected onto the screen in front of them. The computer system is able to isolate and
analyse the body’s silhouette to distinguish posture, gesture, and rate of movement in
relation to the graphic objects that the user could interact with. By repeatedly stepping
in and out of the installation, users could switch between approximately fifty interactive
compositions of varying styles. Examples of Krueger’s interactive compositions
developed for VIDEOPLACE include Critter, Medley, and Digital Drawing (Figure 4).
Figure 4: Still images of VIDEOPLACE, Myron Krueger (removed due to copyright restrictions)
In the environment called Critter, participants can interact with a computergenerated insect or critter (Krueger 1991) ibid. p. 46. The critter reacts to the
participant’s silhouette in several ways. For example, the critter appears to chase the
participant when they move their image around the screen. If the participant stands still
the critter will attempt to climb up the participant’s silhouette and onto their head. If the
user holds out their hand the critter will attempt to float down and land on it. Krueger
observed that people reacted to the critter’s behaviour as if it were alive.
In the environment called Individual Medley, participants can create dynamic
images controlled by movements of their bodies (ibid. p. 48). The work captures the
participant’s eight most recent silhouettes and colours them according to how they
overlap. If the participant continues to move, the work will continually update. According
the Krueger, the goal of this work is to communicate the pleasure of aesthetic creation.
42
In the environment called Digital Drawing, participants can draw on the
computer screen using the silhouette image of their finger (ibid. p. 50). If there are
several participants in the environment, each is assigned a different colour. According
to Krueger, the goal of this interactive environment is to give the participant explicit
creative control over the medium.
Krueger’s goal was not to present a single interactive art piece, but rather to
allow the users to experience a range of interactive styles so as to demonstrate the
potential richness of the medium. Krueger explored embodiment between people and
machines by focusing his artwork on the human experience of interaction and of the
interactions afforded by the environment itself.
4.3
Embodied interaction in the work of Myron Krueger
As discussed in Chapter 3, Paul Dourish examines the way humans interact with
computers in his book Where the Action Is: The Foundations of Embodied Interaction
(Dourish 2001). Similarly, Myron Krueger asks “What are the various ways in which
people and machines might interact, and which of these is the most pleasing?” (Krueger
1991) p. xii.
Krueger’s work draws many parallels with Dourish’s theory for embodied
interaction. For example, Krueger is concerned with the study of computer interfaces
that enable user interaction similar to how we act in the physical world. To quote
Krueger:” It was clear that the ultimate computer should perceive the human body,
listen to the human voice, and respond through all the human senses” (ibid. p. xiv).
Krueger is also interested in the relationship between action and meaning. He states:
“Just as music addresses the intellectual machinery with which we understand
sounds – particularly speech sounds – artificial realities can touch the primitive
mechanisms through which we apprehend physical reality. The environmental
experience can be composed in terms of our abstract sense of space and
objects and the expectations we have for the effects of our actions on the world.”
(ibid. pp. 92-93)
Ultimately, Krueger describes his ideas, techniques and methods for developing
his interactive systems. His methods rely on user interactions that occur in space,
43
through the human body, and with sustained engagement with computer environments.
In short, there are direct connections between how Dourish understands user
interaction as an embodied activity, and Krueger’s artistic and often experimental
computer implementations. This should be no surprise, as Krueger’s work has
environmental similarities to the pioneering work in ubiquitous computing discussed in
Chapter 3.
Furthermore, Krueger intuitively speculated that VIDEOPLACE could be used in
the service of traumatic brain injury movement rehabilitation. (ibid. pp. 197–198) To
quote Krueger: “Artificial realities have an important implication for the physically
handicapped. They provide a powerful medium for translating what is limited physical
activity in the real world into full participation in a radically different graphic environment”
(ibid. p. 196). Krueger observed that VIDEOPLACE may provide traumatic brain injured
patients with the motivation to perform otherwise repetitive and often tedious
movements of affected limbs. Krueger suggests that the virtual environment could be
scaled to respond to the limited movement capacities of users. The patient could be
invited to perform some physical action and be rewarded with some form of compelling
computer generated feedback.
In the next section, I will refer to Dourish’s five foundations for embodied
interaction and relate them to Krueger’s techniques used to develop his work. This
chapter is not a complete analysis of Krueger’s work. Rather, I use this case study as a
vehicle for suggesting possibilities for design and to further clarify the discussion from
Chapter 3.
4.3.1
Dourish’s first foundation: Ontology related to Krueger
As discussed in Chapter 3, Dourish explains that ontology is a branch of
metaphysics concerned with the existence and identification of objects and entities.
According to Dourish, ontology essentially arises from a state of awareness in which we
continually assess our relationship to the objects in the world. In short, we uncover
meaning in the world through our interactions with it. Dourish’s understanding of
ontology ultimately leads him to ask how one might ‘design’ ontology for computer
systems.
Here, Krueger’s defines this problem as a technological one. Krueger’s defines a
technique he calls ‘perception’, which refers not to user perception, but to a computer’s
44
ability to interpret and respond to what it perceives (Krueger 1991) ibid. p. 86. The way
a computer responds to the user depends on the quality and configuration of its
perceptual system. Information about the user’s behaviour can be obtained from a
range of electronic sensors attached to the body or via video cameras tracking the
participant’s movement. According to Krueger, the configuration of these sensors and
the interpreting software constitute the perceptual system. The perceptual system
determines what the computer knows and thus what it will respond to. Perception is the
degree to which the computer system can interpret which objects are in a physical
space and where they are.
In VIDEOPLACE, the perceptual system incorporates a video camera that
captures the movement-behaviour of a participant performing in the virtual environment.
The video camera captures the user’s body movements in real time (at least thirty times
a second). The computer analyses the video camera feed and perceives dynamic
information – such as body posture, rate and direction of participant’s movement, and
pitch or volume of voice. These attributes can be controlled by the participant and form
the basis for user interaction. The perceptual system interprets the user’s gestures such
as touching, hitting, throwing, kicking, jumping, and pointing. The computer responds to
these actions with predefined sets of audiovisual feedback composed by Krueger.
In Dourish’s discussion of ontology he identifies how the user ‘individuates’,
‘tailors’, and ‘participates’ in an interactive environment.
Individuate
According to Dourish, to ‘individuate’ in design is to enable the user to
differentiate between entities. In VIDEOPLACE, the user sees a silhouette of
themselves projected on a video screen. The silhouette reflects their movements as
they occur, which are immediately translated into some form of audiovisual feedback.
The silhouette becomes the individuated self-image of the user as the key to
understanding the environment projected on the video screen. Thus, the projected selfimage is the known reference against which all transformations in the virtual
environment are registered.
Tailored
According to Dourish the ability for the user to tailor the environment informs an
aspect of ontology. No two people experience the world in exactly the same way. As
such, certain aspects of a computer system could be scaled and adjusted to the
45
experience of the user. Krueger does not deal with this point directly, however he does
describe at length how a medium like VIDEOPLACE could be tailored for various
applications (Krueger 1991) pp. 169-206. These include applications for training,
education, and physical therapy.
Participation
User participation informs another aspect of ontology for Dourish. In Krueger’s
work, user participation formed the primary subject of VIDEOPLACE (Krueger 1991)
ibid. pp. 91-94. By stepping into the installation, users were able to interact with fifty
different virtual environments. Transformation of the user’s physical body posture
created an immediate effect in each of the virtual worlds. Movements of the body
elicited a computer response that in turn enabled the user to create a variety of dynamic
artistic compositions. The relationship between user participation and computer
response enabled the user to become a creator of the artwork. By participating through
user interaction, each user has the opportunity to create a unique experience.
VIDEOPLACE generates audiovisual sensations for the user that, as Krueger notes,
make participating in that world both convincing and engaging. By participating in
VIDEOPLACE, users were able to ‘complete’ the art work.
Krueger observes that the user’s experience of participation in VIDEOPLACE is
playful (ibid. p. 90). He notes that a playful aesthetic allows the participant to explore
and experiment with how to use the virtual environments. Through playful interaction,
users could seek out new effects, sounds, and visual features with their bodies to see
how they work. By doing so, he suggests users might discover new ways of relating to
their body. Krueger’s personal observations suggest playful user interaction may
motivate users to participate and perform movement that they would otherwise feel
inhibited to perform.
We may observe the importance of user participation and playful interaction in
the therapeutic environments of Brooks et al. discussed in Chapter 2 (Brooks and
Hasselblad 2004) (Hasselblad, Petersson et al. 2007). They observed an increase in
the participant’s level of self-esteem, achievement and behavioural skills as a result of
participation in playful and creative activities. They noted that curiosity and exploration
were seen to be key values in eliciting user participation.
46
4.3.2
Dourish’s second foundation: Intersubjectivity related to Krueger
According to Dourish, the second term ‘intersubjectivity‘, as discussed in
Chapter 3, is concerned with how users might share meaning. Dourish suggests that
intersubjectivity emerges in two ways in the design of interactive systems. Both are
instances of where the user of an interactive system needs to understand the intentions
and motivations of another party. According to Dourish, the first instance concerns how
the designer communicates to the user a set of ‘constraints’ and ‘expectations’ about
how an interactive system should be used. The second instance of intersubjectivity in
interactive systems relates to the ways users ‘appropriate’ technology in the creation of
working practices, so that the two evolve around each other.
Expectation
Krueger relates expectation to how one might maintain user interest in virtual
environments for learning (Krueger 1991) ibid. p. 202-203. The user learns how to
interact with the system through a range of pre-composed computer responses. He
describes expectation as part of a processing of learning through the way user-actions
are verified and reinforced by the computer system. If the user’s actions are reinforced
repeatedly, then the outcome becomes expected. Krueger proposes that the user will
likely respond if their actions are followed by a positive outcome, or in other words,
reinforced.
Krueger suggests that a general structure for maintaining user interest can be
provided by composing variations of the reinforcer: “If the student knows that the
response that reinforces each correct answer will be part of a continually interesting
pattern, he will be motivated to persist out of curiosity about the next reinforcer. It is the
maintenance of interest that is motivating rather than any intrinsic value of the reinforcer
itself.” (ibid. p. 203) According to Dourish, when media is modulated it transforms how it
carries information. For Dourish, modulation is the carrier of embodied meaning that
transforms how we might use an interactive system. Here, both Krueger and Dourish
describe how varying computer feedback can change a user’s action.
Krueger suggests that varying the ‘reinforcers’ through the course of user
interaction assists in maintaining user engagement in activities that would otherwise fail
to captivate them. For example, he compares a sequence of reinforcers to that of a
piece of music. He suggests each single note of a musical composition could be
considered a reinforcer that induces further listening. In this sense, each computer
47
response should encourage further user interaction. Meaning is created for the user
through their perception of the computer responses in relation to their interactions.
Krueger suggests that a person’s expectations are learned through the reinforcement of
their actions. Once learned, the user’s expectations can be modified over time.
Context
According to Dourish, a design constraint is a method of limiting the options for
the user at any one time. It assists the user in deciding how to proceed. For Krueger,
the organising principle that governs constraint is ‘context’ (Krueger 1991) ibid. pp. 154157. According to Krueger, a context subsumes the user-activities through which an
individual interprets the world and controls their responses. A context may include the
physical environment, the user body, and the activity the individual is doing.
A context provides constraints to the activities that a user can perform at any
one time. If the context can be verified from moment to moment by the user then the
user can devote their attention to the task at hand. Krueger suggests context is not a
fixed rigid structure but rather one that allows for change. One context should lead to
another in expected and even predictable ways. However, he notes that not all
situations are predictable and surprises and new situations might occur for the user.
Krueger observes that user interaction will often be unsatisfactory if the context
for user interaction is continuously unpredictable, and one in which the user is not
prepared for. For example, a user might find it difficult to sense their interactions if an
action simultaneously affects all parameters in a virtual environment. In short, both
authors agree that constraints provide the user with a frame of reference, a context
within which the interaction can be perceived. The relationship between the constraint
and the user reveals itself over the course of the interaction between the user and the
system.
Appropriation
Krueger does not deal with the idea of user appropriation and shared use
directly. However, it is highly likely, given its room-sized configurations, that
VIDEOPLACE would enable multiple participants to engage with the work at any one
time. Perhaps one person would observe another interacting with the system. A person
observing another user would learn which actions were predictable, explicit, and
effective in the environment. Given the wide range of interactive environments created
for VIDEOPLACE, it is possible that users may actively and passively engage with the
48
work through observation and direct participation. Krueger observed that each
experience would be unique for each participant as they appropriate the system and
interact in their own way. In fact, VIDEOPLACE was developed and adapted from his
own observations of user interactions from a previous work called METAPLAY (Krueger
1991) ibid. p. 34.
4.3.3
Dourish’s third foundation: Intentionality related to Krueger
As discussed in Chapter 3, Dourish suggests intentionality provides a
conceptual way of understanding how the elements of an interactive system can
provide users with meaning in the course of an activity. Dourish states that through
creating opportunities for action in a computer system, we must also allow for effects on
the world that our actions are designed to cause, and for users to create meaning from
these effects. Dourish suggests that user interaction with designed elements of a
computer system (say a user interface) carries intentional connotations.
We may observe examples of intentionality in Krueger’s design in the way the
system elicits user interaction in VIDEOPLACE (Krueger 1991). Krueger composed a
variety of user interactions the interface could interpret. Through gestures such as
touching, hitting, throwing, kicking, jumping and pointing, the objects in the virtual
environment could be controlled.
The graphic object might bear some resemblance to a ball the user can touch
and manipulate in some way, for example by lifting, pushing, or throwing it around the
computer screen. Krueger states that the moment a graphic object responds to the
user’s actions, both the object and the experience become real (ibid. p39). The object
thus implies some form of intentionality for action, and, when acted upon by the user
creates some effect in the virtual environment. The relationship between a performed
action and the graphic entities is based on the user exploring how the computer
responds and learning the rules governing the virtual environment in the course of their
activity. In this way, intentionality arises from actions in the environment.
4.3.4
Dourish’s fourth foundation: Coupling related to Krueger
As discussed in Chapter 3, Dourish suggests ‘coupling’ is the action of binding
entities so they can operate together to provide a new set of functions. Coupling is the
way our actions are bound to the effects they have in a virtual environment. According
49
to Dourish, being able to continually engage, separate, and reengage with the entities
of an interactive system – that is, being able to control the coupling – makes our use of
equipment more effective.
Control
We may observe coupling in Krueger’s work as it relates to linking user ‘control’
to the computer ‘response’ of the interactive environment (Krueger 1991) pp. 95-96. For
Krueger, it was important for the user to figure out and understand how they were
influencing events in VIDEOPLACE. Someone’s motives might be aesthetic, playful, or
competitive, but regardless, users can only experience a sense of achievement and
considerable pleasure if they feel that they are in control of some part of their
experience, both directly and indirectly.
Krueger suggests the participant’s awareness of their body is a vital part of
experiencing his work. The computer system accepts input from the participant, and
then responds in a manner that people can recognise as corresponding to their actions.
Every user action with VIDEOPLACE was accompanied by some form of immediate
audio/visual acknowledgement. It was the composition of the relationships between
action, control, and response that was of primary importance to Krueger.
Response
Howard Rheingold recalls that Krueger’s emphasis from the beginning was that
“Response is the Medium” (Rheingold 1992). By this he means that the medium has the
potential to elicit new kinds of human behaviour through user interaction in a simulated
environment. The user interface could be programmed to be aware of the space
surrounding the user and respond to their behaviour in a seamless manner. Krueger
observed that users will not see a connection between their actions and the computer’s
response if the feedback is not consistent.
Dourish states that effective communication relies on the ability of the user to be
able to control the medium, and that feedback is an essential part of this control.
Feedback provides the user with an indication that something has happened. Krueger
suggests feedback has to repeat long enough for the participant to perceive a
responsive pattern they can control as a result of their own actions (Krueger 1991) ibid.
p. 94.
50
Krueger notes that if the computer response is not perceived, then user
frustration may quickly become apparent. Krueger centered his ideas on coupling user
actions to response as a way to focus his artwork on the human experience of
interaction. In short, both Krueger and Dourish suggest that coupling action to response
provides users with a connection between a sense of the self and their embodied
experience of the world.
4.3.5
Dourish’s fifth foundation: Metaphor related to Krueger
As discussed in Chapter 3, Dourish suggests that metaphors provide a model
for conveying ideas about actions that can be performed by the user. Metaphors may
imply user actions such as ‘dragging’ or ‘dropping’, or familiar aspects of the real-world
in the design of interfaces such as ‘windows’ or ‘trash cans’. Similarly for Krueger,
metaphor refers to the actions that are suggested by the juxtaposition of an image with
a graphic object. Specifically, Krueger refers to the image of the user as the metaphor
for interaction (Krueger 1991) ibid. pp. 115-117. Using his example, if the user’s hand
appears to be near a graphic representation of a beach ball, then the impression given
to the user is that they can move the ball through their physical-participation.
However, Krueger acknowledges that there are limiting issues surrounding the
physical-participation metaphor his work so heavily relies on (ibid. p. 116). There are
few tasks in the real world that are performed by gesture. Gesture-based systems rely
on non-contact based user interactions (body gesture in open space). According to
Dourish most tasks require the coupling of physical tools to the effects in the world to
mediate action. With Krueger’s VIDEOPLACE, the vision system effectively replaced
the conventional computer mouse and keyboard with an interface almost invisible to the
user.
Djajadiningrat et al. note that gesture based systems struggle with meaningful
relationships between form, action, and function (Djajadiningrat, Matthews et al. 2007).
They suggest it seems unlikely that users have any natural affinity for gestural
language. An interface almost invisible to the user provides no ‘hooks’ for the user’s
perceptual-motor system to get a ‘grip’ on a product interface. Rather, Djajadiningrat et
al. place an emphasis on the tangibility and materiality of interfaces that users can
‘touch’ as a metaphor for physical user interaction. They see that the embodiment
challenge for human computer interaction is to link the physicality of an interface with
51
motor skills and manual dexterity to create a physical, contactual and dynamic fit
between human and product.
Krueger proposes symbolic gestures to work around this problem (Krueger
1991) ibid. p. 116. For example, symbolic gestures in VIDEOPLACE enabled users to
draw on the screen by extending one finger. Users could erase the drawing by pinching
two fingers together, and erase the entire image by opening their hands. However,
Krueger suggests that symbolic gestures should be limited in use because they conflict
with natural human behaviour.
Metaphors for physical action are often ambiguous, particularly if the user’s
effects on the virtual environments are conferred by gesture alone. For example, a
physical user action such as reaching out to touch a graphic object may result in a
variety of potential outcomes. The object may be pulled toward, or pushed away from
the user as a result of the interaction. However, there is no way for the computer
system to distinguish and interpret between these two intentions, or for the user to
predict an expected outcome.
4.4
Discussion and conclusion
In this chapter I explored my second research question: ‘How may we observe
Dourish’s theory for embodied interaction in the techniques of new media artist Myron
Krueger?’ I addressed this question firstly by describing Krueger’s pioneering work
VIDEOPLACE in more detail, and secondly, I described the techniques and methods he
used in relationship to Dourish’s five foundations for embodied interaction. Both
authors’ perspectives explore the relationships between people and computer systems.
Both ask similar questions that relate to unifying the physical world and computer
worlds. Both suggest that meaning through action should be closely matched to our
everyday experiences and abilities.
Krueger suggests user interaction and experience is derived from ‘perception’,
‘participation’, ‘expectation’, ‘context’, ‘control’, and ‘response’. He suggests these
attributes in VIDEOPLACE offer the user an environment in which the mind, the body,
and the full human sensory world are reintegrated.
There are two aspects of VIDEOPLACE that are of particular interest to my
research. Firstly, Krueger emphasises an unencumbered mode of user interaction
52
whereby the participant does not have to wear any electronic sensing apparatus to
track their movement. According to media critic Howard Rheingold, this runs counter to
the general technical developments of the time, in which virtual reality was dominated
by wearable interfaces such as data gloves, sensor-laden body suits and vision goggles
(Rheingold 1992). Krueger contends that it seems likely people in everyday situations
might find it undesirable to be encumbered and tethered with wearable technology
which he found burdensome, distracting, unwelcome and costly in most cases (Bermar
1991). In the context of my research project, it may be desirable to minimise
encumbrance of TBI patients.
Secondly, Krueger creates a high level of user engagement in VIDEOPLACE
which enables the user to engage in playful activities. The user can explore and
discover relationships between their interactions and the feedback produced by the
environment. No two experiences are identical for different users. In this way, Krueger
suggests the technology is personalised and humanised. Each user has a dramatically
different experience, not only because each user interacts differently, but because the
relationships that govern the interaction differ. Each environment offers the user an
extended range of activities. Krueger’s strategy here is to maintain and attract user
attention.
Krueger’s personal observations suggest playful user interaction may motivate
users to participate and perform movement that they would otherwise feel inhibited to
perform. Would playful user interactions learned by cause and effect as described in
VIDEOPLACE stimulate a patient’s level of motivation and engagement? The issue of
maintaining engagement in my project underlines the importance of designing
therapeutic tasks and environments that can be presented in an aesthetically
meaningful and stimulating way. Maximising a patient’s engagement in relevant and
pleasurable activities may compliment existing, often tedious, approaches to
rehabilitation.
I have identified problematic issues with VIDEOPLACE in relationship to my
project. Firstly, the user is represented in the environment via a silhouette of their own
body. What effect would this have on traumatic brain injured patients to see their own
physical disfiguration and impairment reflected in a virtual environment? Would this
likely reinforce a negative body image for the patient, or help them adjust?
53
Secondly, the user’s gestures to control computer environments are ambiguous.
In VIDEOPLACE, the user interface is invisible to the user. In the context of movement
rehabilitation it may be preferable to make the user interface direct and explicit in its
use. It seems likely that an impaired user will find it difficult to engage and communicate
with something that is invisible and isn’t there. Dourish suggests such an interface is
unlikely to impinge on the embodied perceptions of the user, and is therefore unlikely to
be used effectively. He argues that the visibility of a user interface should be a resource
to mediate user action.
I would argue that the absence of tactility and touch is a weakness in Krueger’s
work in relation to my project. User interaction happens through non-contact body
gestures in open space. The engagement between the user’s body and the invisibility of
Krueger’s interface places emphasis on the user’s cognitive skills rather than
perceptual-motor skills and manual dexterity. This point turns my focus to tangible
computing and its potential to allow rich and dexterous interaction with physical
artifacts.
As we have discussed in Chapter 3, embodied interaction places an emphasis
on the relationship between user, the interface, and the environment the interface
controls. In the next chapter, I will explore the implications for embodied interaction in
the development of my project. I will apply the design techniques of Krueger while
cognisant of the limitations in his work. To reconcile these limitations I will draw on
Dourish’s principles for tangible computing that relate to the configurability of space, the
orientation of the human body to the task, physical constraints, and affordances.
54
Chapter 5:
The Research Project:
How useful are the theories of Dourish, and techniques of Krueger to the
development of my project?
5.1
Introduction
I have explored the nature of embodied interaction as a framework for designing
an interactive art system for movement rehabilitation. In Chapter 2, I identified that
developers of interactive computer systems for movement rehabilitation are often
constrained to the use of conventional desktop interfaces. These computer interfaces
may fall short of fostering natural user interaction that translates into the relearning of
body movement for traumatic brain injured patients. This raised the issue of how to
design user interfaces that might correlate to a patient’s sense of embodiment in ways
that help in the acquisition of movement skills. For this reason, it is important to
understand what embodiment is, and how it may be applied in the development of my
project.
I discussed the nature of embodiment in two primary ways. In Chapter 3, I
explored Paul Dourish’s foundational theory to understand embodied interaction.
Embodied interaction describes the nature of computer user interaction as an embodied
phenomenon. Dourish defines embodied interaction through five interrelated theories:
‘ontology’, ‘intersubjectivity’, ‘intentionality’, ‘coupling’, and ‘metaphor’.
In Chapter 4, I analysed the techniques used by Myron Krueger as a case study.
I related Krueger’s techniques to Dourish’s theory of embodied interaction. My findings
revealed that Krueger’s work has theoretical and conceptual parallels with Dourish.
Both authors support embodiment in ways that serve to reintegrate physical aspects of
the real world, the user’s body, and the virtual world of the computer. Both authors
argue for interfaces that encourage a seamless form of interaction between the user
and their ambient environment. Therefore, how useful are the theories of Dourish, and
techniques of Krueger to the development of my project?
I will address the question by applying the insights derived from my study of
Dourish’s theory and Krueger’s techniques to my project. I will relate my project to
Dourish’s framework for embodied interaction and to Krueger’s techniques within each
foundation. I will reflect on my design, intentions, process and development for each
constituent part of the project – this includes the overall concept of the system, the user
55
interface, and interactive computer environments. I will conclude with a discussion on
the user’s experience of Elements as a method of evaluating the design.
5.2
The Elements project
The Elements project is an interactive multimedia artwork that supports
movement assessment and rehabilitation for patients recovering from traumatic brain
injury. As part of this project I designed the user interface, the interactive multimedia
environments, and the augmented feedback (visual, haptic, and auditory) used to help
the patients to relearn movement skills. Elements is developed to empower traumatic
brain injured adults with moderate or severe upper limb movement disabilities.
According to McCrea et al., approximately 85% of traumatic brain injured
patients suffer acute impairment to their upper body. Consequently, a majority of
patients rate the return of upper limb functionality as a high priority. This is no surprise
as activities for daily living and self-care, such as feeding, grooming, toileting, and
dressing, all require upper limb interaction with the environment. As discussed in
Chapter 1, impairment to upper limb function can include reduced range of motion,
accuracy of reaching, inability to grasp and lift objects, or perform fine motor
movements (McCrea, Eng et al. 2002). The Elements interface is configured to enable
the user to reach, grasp, lift, and place physical objects in an interactive environment.
As shown in Figure 5, Elements is a custom-made system comprising two
desktop display monitors, four tangible user interfaces (TUIs), a stereoscopic computer
vision system to track the patient’s movements of the TUIs, and computer game
software used to present a series of interactive environments to the patient. One
horizontal tabletop-mounted monitor displays the interactive environment to the patient,
and another is for the therapist to observe and recalibrate the variables of the
environment being displayed to the patient. This control allows the therapist to alter the
complexity of the environment according to the patient’s ability and performance during
any consultative period.
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Figure 5: Illustration of Elements prototype. Image key - 1) Patient; 2) Computer vision camera
and mount; 3) Patient display; 4) TUIs; 5) Therapist display; 6) Therapist administrator
The patient interacts with the environment via the tangible user interfaces.
Tangible user interfaces are physical objects that may be used to represent, control and
manipulate computer environments. The TUIs are soft graspable interfaces that
incorporate low cost sensor technology to augment feedback that, in turn, mediates the
form of interaction between the patient and the environment. The computer video
camera identifies the interface and tracks its position and orientation relative to the
computer display. Essentially, the computer tracks the endpoint motion of the patient’s
arm while the patient is manipulating the tangible user interface.
The Elements software consists of a suite of seven interactive applications, each
providing patients with tasks geared toward reaching, grasping, lifting, moving, and
placing the tangible user interfaces. Audiovisual computer feedback is used by patients
to refine their movements online and over time. Patients can manipulate the feedback
to create unique audiovisual outcomes. The system-design provides tactility, texture,
and audiovisual feedback to entice patients to explore their own movement capabilities
in externally directed and self-directed ways.
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The complexity of this project necessitated my engagement with other
disciplines. There were contributions from a number of researchers in its realisation and
is part of a broader study funded by an Australian Research Council (ARC) Linkage
Grant. The project is a joint collaboration between RMIT University, Griffith University,
the Australia Council for the Arts, and Epworth Hospital, Melbourne. The collaboration
fostered a multi-disciplinary approach where the exchange of knowledge and ideas
gained strength from others in a process of communication. We all contributed our own
insights and working methodologies into the development of the project. Our
collaboration became an exercise in sharing knowledge and experience of technology,
and discussion around theoretical ideas in which cohesion and consensus could be
generated leading to the conception of Elements.
Specific to this project, new media art, computer science, and health science
contributed to the development of Elements. The research collaboration was split into
three distinct areas of enquiry. As part of this project I designed the user interfaces, the
interactive multimedia environments, and the audiovisual feedback used to assist the
patients in relearning movement skills.
Electrical and Computer Engineering PhD student Ross Eldridge developed the
software for the multimedia environments and computer video system used to track the
patient’s movement (Eldridge, Rudolph et al. 2007). Psychology PhD student Nick
Mumford designed the clinical tools and protocols to evaluate the patient’s performance
using the system over time (Mumford and Wilson 2009) (Mumford, Duckworth et al.
2010). Further discussion of the clinical evaluation will be provided in the section 5.4 of
this chapter.
5.3
Embodied interaction in Elements
As discussed in Chapters 3 and 4, Dourish and Krueger examine the way
humans interact with computers. Their approach is concerned with exploring computer
interfaces that enable user interactions similar to how we act in the physical world. I am
concerned with designing an interface that allows patients to develop the ability to
relearn movement skills. I began my design-approach by investigating which reacquired movement skills traumatic brain injured patients would find most useful in the
real world. I identified a set of desired upper limb movements and designed the
interactive environment around them.
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I identified media that can be configured to interpret the user’s upper limb
movements, and physical objects that may be used to represent, control, and
manipulate computer environments. In Chapter 3 I discussed ‘ubiquitous’ and ‘tangible’
computing, where users interact with their bodies through specially designed interfaces
that respond to physical body input. These strands of human computer interaction
research offer potential design directions for my project.
Pierre Wellner’s DigitalDesk was particularly inspirational for my project (Wellner
1993). I envisaged a similar tabletop display that could interpret the patient’s physical
manipulations of various objects to control elements in a computer graphic
environment. However, I identified several practical limitations in Wellner’s
implementation.
Wellner utilised a front (top down) projection system to display the interactive
environment. This system required a large desk to accommodate the projector mount
frame and mirrors, and required considerable vertical distance between the desk and
the projector to achieve a large display area. Uncontrolled ambient light could interfere
with the contrast and brightness of the projected image. The user’s upper limbs would
also interfere with the projection. For example, their hands and arms would cast
shadows, and the environment would be projected onto the patient’s limbs if they
reached over the desk.
To address these issues, our research group concluded that a large format LCD
screen would be preferable to projector technology. In addition, an LCD screen is more
portable, can be mounted on any table with ease, and requires little image calibration.
In the next section I will reflect on my design in more detail as it relates to Dourish’s five
foundations for embodied interaction and Krueger’s techniques.
5.3.1
Dourish’s first foundation: Ontology related to Elements
In Chapter 3, Dourish identifies that ontology is concerned with the existence
and identification of objects and entities. Krueger identifies this concern from a
technological perspective in Chapter 4. Krueger refers to the quality and configuration
of the computer hardware and software to perceive and interpret the participant’s
behaviour. The computer’s ‘perceptual system’ is the degree to which a computer
system can interpret which objects are in a physical space and its location.
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Perceptual System
Wellner programmed computer software that could interpret symbolic hand
gestures and identify physical user interfaces in the environment (Wellner 1993). As
discussed in Chapter 4, Krueger suggests that the use of symbolic gestures should be
limited (Krueger 1991). Symbolic gestures used to control a computer environment are
often ambiguous. I concluded that object identification, and the movement of objects
should be tracked via the computer rather than vague hand and arm movements. This
practical approach would minimise encumbering the patient with wearable sensors and
devices to track their movement.
Our research group trialed a number of vision systems that could interpret the
position of objects in space. Electrical and Computer Engineering PhD student Ross
Eldridge developed the software for the computer vision system used to track the
patient’s movements. A technical description of the tracking system is beyond the scope
of my exegesis, however the final implementation incorporated a 3D stereo vision
camera by PointGreyTM mounted above the display. A technical description of the
hardware can be found in Appendix A.
The computer’s perceptual system is configured to identify physical objects, and
track user movement of objects in real-time. In collaboration with Eldridge, I designed a
series of tangible user interfaces that could be identified by the computer’s perceptual
system. Here, I experimented with the size, shape, and colour of each handheld user
interface to enable the computer’s perceptual system to track each tangible user
interface.
Individuate
According to Dourish, to ‘individuate’ in design is to enable the user to
differentiate between entities. For Krueger, the user’s computer silhouette becomes the
individuated self-image, which is the user’s key to understanding the environment
projected on the video screen. Thus, the projected self-image is the known reference
against which all transformations in the VE are registered. For the Elements system, I
designed tangible user interfaces, each of which becomes the known reference against
which all transformations in Elements are registered.
I designed four unique shaped and coloured graspable, tangible user interfaces:
a cylinder, a triangular prism; a pentagonal prism; and a rectangular block (Figure 6).
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The shape and physical weight of each TUI offers the patient varying perceptual motor
cues for action. For example, how the patient might pre-shape and orientate their hand
in the act of grasping and lifting each individual TUI is informed by its shape.
Figure 6: Four graspable, tangible user interfaces.
The use of colour (red, blue, green, and yellow) in my design is practical on two
levels. Firstly, it assists the computer to identify each unique colour in order to locate
and track the tangible user interface. Secondly, traumatic brain injured patients
frequently suffer perceptual difficulties in auditory and visual functions, recognition of
objects, impairment of space and distance judgment, and difficulty with orientation. The
relationship between the high contrast colours and simple geometric shapes of each
TUI is geared toward assisting a visually impaired user individuate each interface.
Tailored
According to Dourish, the ability for a user to ‘tailor’ the environment informs an
aspect of ontology. No two people experience the world in exactly the same way. As
such, certain aspects of a computer system can be scaled and adjusted to the
experience of the user. Likewise, no two patients will suffer from the same impairments.
I designed a graphical user interface to provide the therapist with options to
control the Elements tasks, and store data for specific participants (Figure 7). A new
patient’s details can be entered into a database, or alternatively, the details of an
existing user can be loaded. Then, one of seven tasks is chosen. Some of the options
for each task include: recording which hand the patient is using to perform the task; the
number of times the environment will repeat over a period; the types of audiovisual
feedback to be used; audiovisual aesthetic variations to each task; use of single or
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multiple tangible user interfaces; how near or far away the task appears relative to the
patient’s arm reach; and the duration of the task.
Once the task is complete, the patient’s results can be saved to a Microsoft
Excel-compatible spreadsheet for review of performance. The adjustable parameters
enable the therapist to tailor the audiovisual complexity of the interactive environments
to suit the perceptual and motor capabilities of the patient. The ability to tailor the
environment can also be a two-way conversation between the patient and the therapist.
The patient can also request adjustments to the environment once they are familiar with
the task.
The patient’s body location and posture in space are also adjustable. Depending
on the activity at hand, a patient may need to be closer, farther away, or continually
adapting their bodily orientation to the task. As such, the patient can tailor their actions
as the task requires. For example, in Wellner’s DigitalDesk, users could move and edit
digital documents using hand and arm gestures. The space, the objects, and how the
body is configured are determined relative to each other.
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Figure 7: The Elements graphical user interface which enables the therapist to tailor the
parameters of each environment.
Participation
Dourish suggests that an ontological structure is an emergent phenomenon that
arises as a result of user participation with an entity. Users can individuate and tailor an
environment through their participation. For Krueger, user participation was essential to
the experience of his artwork. The relationship between user participation and computer
response enabled the user to become creators of his artwork. Participation through user
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interaction enabled each user to create unique experiences. Through participation with
their bodies, users could seek out new effects, sounds, and visual features of the
environment to see how they work. By doing so, Krueger suggests users might discover
new ways of relating to their bodies.
Similarly, I wished to create a series of interactive environments that would
enable a patient to explore and experiment with how to use the virtual environments. I
designed two modes of user participation that exploited the potential of the Elements
system. Each of these modes encourages a different style of user interaction and,
consequently, has different application potential. A DVD containing video of the
Elements project can be found in Attachment A.
The first mode of user participation presents four individual task-driven computer
games of varying complexity that addresses the competence level of the patient. In
each of the four tasks, a patient is asked to place the cylindrical tangible user interface
on a series of targets (Figure 8). The four tasks are called ‘Bases’, ‘Random Bases’,
‘GO’, and ‘GO-NO-GO’ respectively.
Figure 8: A patient places the cylindrical TUI onto a series of targets.
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‘Bases’ consists of a home base where the patients initially place the cylindrical
TUI, and three potential movement targets (Figure 9). The circular targets are cued in a
fixed order (‘home base’, ‘west’, ‘north’, and ‘east’) using an illuminated border to
highlight the next target location.
Figure 9: The ‘Bases’ task. Images, left to right – overall layout of target locations; first target is
highlighted; second target is highlighted as next location.
‘Random Bases’ has the same configuration of targets, but they are highlighted
in a random order (Figure 10).
Figure 10: The ‘Random Bases’ task. Images, left to right – overall layout of target locations;
north target is randomly highlighted; east target is randomly highlighted as next location.
‘GO’ uses a configuration of nine targets along three radials emanating from the
home base (Figure 11). All of the targets are initially hidden from the user. Each target
then appears randomly in each of the nine locations. The patient must move the TUI to
each of the targets as they are revealed.
Figure 11: The ‘GO’ task. Images, left to right – overall layout of target locations; first target is
randomly highlighted; next target is randomly highlighted as next location.
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‘GO-NO-GO’ uses the same target locations as ‘GO’, however, additional
targets (viz. a pentagon, triangle, and rectangle) are used to intentionally distract the
patient (Figure 12). Patients are instructed to place the TUI on circular targets only, and
to resist moving to the other shapes.
Figure 12: The ‘GO,-NO-GO‘ task. Images, left to right – potential layout of target locations and
distracters; first target is randomly highlighted; distracter is randomly highlighted.
In each task, the accuracy of placement, speed of movement, and efficiency of
the movement-trajectory to the next target are measured in real time. These scores are
presented to the patient as performance graphs. The patient can review their
performance and test scores as the therapy progresses over time. The objectives of the
performance scores support the participant’s perception of progress and improvement,
and encourage self-competitive engagement. In other words, the patient perseveres
and strives to improve their performance scores over time.
The second mode of user interaction is a suite of abstract tools for composing
with sounds and visual feedback that promotes artistic activity. In these environments
there are no set objectives. The patient derives engagement from having the power to
create something while interacting with the work. For example, in one environment, the
patient might feel pleasure from being able to mix and manipulate sound samples in an
aesthetically pleasing way. There is a broad range of experiential outcomes possible in
each of the exploratory Elements environments. The qualities of the user experience
emerge through creative and improvisational interaction. Painting and sound mixing is
expressed through the patient’s upper limb control of the tangible user interfaces.
In each exploratory environment, I use curiosity as a characteristic to motivate
and engage patients. According to Thomas Malone, curiosity is one of the major
characteristics that motivate users to learn (Malone 1981). Malone suggests a learner’s
curiosity can enable them to explore and discover relationships between their
interactions and the computer feedback produced by the environment. Malone
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distinguishes two possible modes of curiosity depending on the level of processing
involved – ‘sensory curiosity’ and ‘cognitive curiosity’. Sensory curiosity involves using
perceptual changes in colour, light, form, and sound to attract attention. By contrast,
cognitive curiosity engages the learner by presenting just enough information to let
them know their existing knowledge is incomplete.
According to Malone, the learners are motivated to learn more in order to make
their cognitive structures better-formed. In this way, a learner’s curiosity can enable
them to explore and discover relationships between their interactions and the feedback
produced by the environment. Curiosity may offer an important additional characteristic
to motivate and engage patients in therapy. In general, an optimal environment will be
one where the patient knows enough to have expectations about what will happen, but
where these expectations are sometimes unmet. A level of novelty and surprise in an
interactive environment may motivate the patient to explore and engage with the
environment at a deeper level.
Patients are given full control to play and explore, allowing them to discover how
the environment is responding to their movement. Through playful interaction, users
can seek out and create new sounds and visual features, exploring their combined
effects. Rizzo adds that self-guided exploratory experiences may promote more
naturalistic behaviours when patients perform in an independent and autonomous way
(Rizzo 2005). By doing so, patients may discover new ways of relating to their body and
relearn their upper limb movement capabilities in a self-directed fashion.
The components of the suite of exploratory environments are called ‘Mixer’,
‘Squiggles’ and ‘Swarm’. The mode of user interaction for each environment is
designed to challenge the patients’ physical and cognitive abilities, motor planning, and
to provoke their interest in practicing otherwise limited movement skills.
Exploratory Task - Mixer
Participants use the Mixer task to compose musical soundtracks by activating
nine preconfigured audio effects. Placing a single tangible user interface on any of the
nine circular targets displayed on the screen activates a unique sound (Figure 13).
Sliding the user interface across the target controls the audio pitch and volume of each
sound effect. Changing the proximity of the tangible user interface to the centre of the
target alters pitch and volume. The sound can be set to play the desired volume and
pitch level when the tangible user interface is lifted off the display surface and away
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from the target. In this way, participants can activate and deactivate multiple sounds for
simultaneous playback.
Figure 13: A patient moves a TUI to activate and mix sounds in the ‘Mixer’ task
Exploratory Task - Squiggles
The Squiggles task encourages patients to draw paint-like lines and shapes on
the display using a combination of four tangible user interfaces (Figure 14). Each
tangible user interface creates a unique colour, texture and musical sound when moved
across the screen. The painted shape appears to come to life once drawn. This
animation is a replay of the original gesture, thus reinforcing the movement used to
create it. The immediacy of drawing combined with the musical feedback enables
participants to create animated patterns, shapes, words, and characters.
Figure 14: Patient moves multiple TUIs to draw lines and shapes in the ‘Squiggles’ task
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Exploratory Task - Swarm
The Swarm task encourages dual hand control (single hand is possible) to
explore the audiovisual relationship between the four different tangible user interfaces.
When placed on the screen, multiple coloured shapes slowly gravitate toward, and
swarm around, the base of each tangible user interface (Figure 15). As each interface is
moved, its swarm follows. The movement, colour, size, and sound characteristics of
each swarm change when the proximity between the tangible user interfaces is altered.
This relationship encourages participants to create unique audiovisual compositions by
moving each tangible user interface across the screen.
Figure 15: Patient moves multiple TUIs to create audiovisual compositions in the ‘Swarm’ task
To conclude this section, I found Dourish’s notion of ontology useful when
considering a range of options in the design of the Elements project. Dourish defines
ontology through three key terms, ‘individuation’, ‘tailoring’, and ‘participation’.
Firstly, I designed the shape and colour of each tangible user interface to assist
the patient. Individuation potentially accommodates the patient’s perceptual
impairments, and enables the computer’s perceptual systems to identify each tangible
user interface.
Secondly, the ability to tailor the environment enables the therapist to adjust the
audiovisual complexity of the task to suit the perceptual and motor capability of the
patient.
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Thirdly, the user’s participation is essential to the experience of Elements,
particularly the exploratory tasks. Similar to Krueger’s work, participation through user
interaction enables each patient to create unique experiences. Through participation,
patients can seek out the new effects, sounds, and visual features of each environment.
Patients can explore how each audiovisual feature in the interactive environment
relates to the position of each tangible user interface.
5.3.2
Dourish’s second foundation: Intersubjectivity related to Elements
According to Dourish, intersubjectivity is concerned with how users might share
meaning. Dourish suggests that intersubjectivity emerges in two ways in the design of
interactive systems. The first instance concerns how the designer communicates to the
user a set of ‘expectations’ and ‘constraints’ about how an interactive system should be
used. The second instance of intersubjectivity relates to the communication between
users, through the system, in a process of ‘appropriation’. Dourish suggests people
‘appropriate’ technology in the creation of working practices, so that the two evolve
around each other.
Expectations
As discussed in Chapter 4, Krueger relates expectation to how one might
maintain user interest. He describes expectation as part of a learning process through
the way user actions are verified and reinforced by the computer system. If a user’s
actions are reinforced repeatedly, then the outcome becomes expected. Krueger
suggests that a person’s expectations are learned through the reinforcement of their
actions.
In the development of the Elements environments, I designed the movementrelated audiovisual feedback to reinforce the actions performed by the patient. The
audiovisual feedback increases the amount of task- and environmental-information
provided to the patient. For example, the feedback may provide the patient with a better
sense of the position of their actions, determine what variations in movement are
required to realise a goal or action (e.g. speed and placement), and a feel for the
unfolding movement-trajectory itself. Each of these parameters is related to one or more
of the audiovisual feedback features outlined in Table 1.
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Table 1: Descriptions of the audiovisual features of the Elements system and their related
movement variables.
Audiovisual Feedback (Tasks 1-4)
Ripple effect for placement
When the TUI is placed on the display, a water ripple
animation emanates from that location.
TUI trace of trajectory
As the TUI is moved across the display, a fading trail
marks the path taken by the TUIs.
Sound pitch and volume
(a) As the TUI approaches a target, a tone increases in
pitch and volume.
(b) Movement speed is correlated to sound pitch.
(c) A ‘click’ type sound is played when the TUI is placed
on a target
Aura effect
As the TUI approaches the correct target, a glowing
‘aura’ appears around the target.
Audiovisual Feedback (tasks 5-7)
Mixer
TUI trace of trajectory
As the TUI is moved across the display, a fading trail
marks the path taken by the TUIs.
Aura effect
As the TUI approaches a target, a glowing ‘aura’
appears around the target.
Spinning target circumference
As the TUI is placed near a target, the outer edge
begins to rotate.
Sound pitch and volume
As the TUI approaches a target, a sound increases in
pitch and volume.
Squiggles
TUI trace of trajectory
As the TUI is moved across the display, a permanent
trail marks the path taken by a TUI.
Animated Trail
Once drawn the trail moves according to the gesture
used to create it.
Sound
A variety of individual sound chords are played when a
TUI is moved. Each TUI is associated with a unique
set of chords and musical instruments.
Swarm
Particle Swarm
Geometric graphic shapes gravitate toward the base of
each TUI placed on the display. As the TUI is moved
the swarm follows.
Swarm Behaviour
(a) Colour – The colour of the shapes change
according to the proximity of TUIs to one another.
(b) Scale – The size of the geometric shapes change
according to the proximity of TUIs to one another.
(c) Sound – Unique ambient sounds play according to
the proximity of the TUIs to one another.
(d) Behaviour – The movement characteristics of the
swarm alters according to the proximity of TUIs to
one another. Each swarm will be repulsed or
attracted to one another depending on the proximity
of the TUIs
Swarm Dispersal
The swarm disperses off the display when a TUI is left
unattended after a short period of time. Any movement
of the TUI will reinstate the swarm.
Movement variable reinforced by Feedback
Informs patients that the object has touched the display.
Visual representation of movement efficiency and
accuracy.
Reinforces the speed of movement, placement accuracy
and movement goal.
Reinforces correct movement choices, proximity of TUI to
target, and accuracy.
Movement variable reinforced by Feedback
Visual representation of movement, and location of TUI
Reinforces the proximity of the TUI to the sound target.
Indicates the playback speed and volume. Faster rotation
= TUI is closer to target. Continuous rotation highlights
the sound is active.
Refines movement used to control the proximity of the
TUI to the target to control sound playback.
Visual representation of movement.
Reinforced recall of movement gesture.
A modulation of the movement reinforcer. Induces further
movement to create musical composition using single or
multiple control of TUIs.
Locates the position of the TUI on the display.
The aesthetics of Colour, Scale, Sound, and Behaviour of
the swarm is modulated too induce further exploratory
user movements associated with the spatial relationships
between the TUIs.
Prompts continual movement of the TUI and encourages
user engagement to the action possibilities.
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During user interaction, patients are instructed to focus on the feedback
appropriate to the movement variable that is targeted (Figure 16). For example, if the
aim is to improve efficiency, the patient is instructed by the therapist to focus on the
fading trail when moving the TUI. The straighter the trail between targets, the more
efficient the movement of the TUI between targets. Likewise, a longer trail indicates a
faster movement. If the patient’s actions are reinforced and verified repeatedly, then the
outcomes may become expected in a process of learning.
Figure 16: Examples of audiovisual feedback - Water Ripple, Trail at the base of a prototype
TUI, and Target aura
Krueger suggested that once expectations are learned, the feedback can be
modified over time. A modification of the audiovisual feedback assists in maintaining
user interest by providing compositional variation to the task. For example, varying the
sound output on the Mixer task through the course of user interaction may maintain
user engagement in movement exercises that would otherwise fail to captivate them. In
this way, the audiovisual feedback may change user interaction and encourage new
movement solutions to a task.
Constraints
To assist the patient in deciding how to proceed using the Elements systems a
number of constraints were developed. Dourish and Norman suggest a constraint is a
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method of limiting the options for the user at any one time. For Krueger, the organising
principle that governs constraint is ‘context’. According to Krueger, a context subsumes
the user-activities through which an individual interprets the world and controls their
responses.
In the Elements system, I define constraints as a relationship between the
patient, their interactions with the task, and the physical configuration of the Elements
environment. We may observe the physical configuration of the Elements environment
constrains user movement within a defined area (Figure 5). The possibilities for user
action take place along a single plane of movement within the confines of the
horizontally mounted computer LCD display together with the tangible user interfaces
to-be-manipulated. The task constraints include the ways in which the tangible user
interfaces can be held, moved, and stabilised in relation to the physical terrain of the
LCD display and the audiovisual feedback. These constraints provide the user with a
frame of reference and a context within which their interactions can be perceived. The
task and environmental constraints are designed to increase the patient’s ability to plan
and initiate movements within a context that is predictable.
Appropriation
I identified the likely relationship between the patient and the therapist while
undergoing rehabilitation therapy. Generally, the rehabilitation process and treatment is
conducted by a team of doctors, nurses, dietitians, occupational therapists,
physiotherapists, psychologists, social workers and speech pathologists. Family
members can also offer vital contributions to the person’s rehabilitation by offering
support during recovery and therapy. Traditional therapies usually entail extensive
hands-on physical rehabilitation. Such rehabilitation progresses from passive range-ofmotion exercises and sensory stimulation during in-patient recovery, to weight training
and constraint-induced movement therapy as function improves (Kaplan 2006). These
approaches often require one-to-one physical and occupational therapy over an
extended period using a variety of props. Our research group concluded that a therapist
would provide the patient with one-to-one guidance, and focus their attention to the use
of the Elements system. The therapist would administer each task, record and observe
their progress.
As such, I configured the system so that the therapist has a separate display to
control the program located to the side of the main Elements display used by patient.
The therapist can stop the program at any time to administer individual instructions
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depending on the patient’s proficiency and stage of recovery. The configuration of the
design maintains a close visible relationship between the patient and the therapist. The
therapist can supervise the patient’s activities and provide encouragement and positive
instructions.
Patients can appropriate the interactive environment in several ways, for
example they can freely choose which tangible user interface they wish to use, the
audiovisual feedback they would like to see, and choose the aesthetics of each
exploratory environment from a range of audiovisual options. By appropriating the
technology to their own capabilities, wishes, and desires, patients can explore new
movement solutions and validate these actions in communication with the therapist.
Thus, the working practices of both the patient and therapist can evolve around each
other.
To conclude this section, I found Dourish’s notion of intersubjectivity particularly
informative in the development of the Elements project. Dourish defines intersubjectivity
through three key terms – ‘expectations’, ‘constraints’, and ‘appropriations’. Krueger’s
notions of ‘reinforcement’ and ‘context’ provide further understanding of the terms
expectations and constraints respectively.
I designed the audiovisual feedback to reinforce the actions performed by the
patient. If the patient’s actions are reinforced and verified repeatedly, then the outcomes
become expected in a process of learning movement.
The physical constraints of the Elements environment, and the task that the
individual user is performing in relationship to the constraints of the individual’s
movement were considered. The individual patient, task, and environmental constraints
provide the user with a frame of reference and a context within which their interactions
can be perceived.
The ways in which the patient and therapist appropriate the Elements systems
enable their working practices to evolve around each other in an intimate patienttherapist dialogue that addresses solutions and options for movement learning. I have
applied all three terms of intersubjectivity in the design toward helping the patient to
understand and share how movements can be performed.
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5.3.3
Dourish’s third foundation: Intentionality related to Elements
Dourish suggests intentionality provides a conceptual way to understand how
the components of an interactive system can provide users with meaning in the course
of an activity. For example, the design of a user interface may carry intentional
connotations that suggest how it will be used. Intentionality in design may refer to some
element of the real world of human experience. A user interface might imply some form
of intentionality for action, and, when acted upon by the user, creates some effect in the
interactive environment. In this way, intentionality arises from perceived action
possibilities in the environment. I considered intentionality and affordance together as a
way to conceptualise the design of the tangible user interaction. The concept of
affordance proposed by Gibson has informed the way I conceived of the relationship
between the patient and the Elements system.
Affordance
The affordances offered by tangible user interfaces have been designed to
engage the patient’s attention to the movement context and the immediate possibilities
for action. More specifically, each tangible user interface affords user actions of
reaching, grasping, lifting, moving, and placing them in relationship to the interactive
environment. The objective of my design approach is to assist patients to relearn simple
perceptual motor skills like lifting a cup, tumbler, or similar-sized object, and to be able
to control moving it. These simple actions offer some element of the real world of
human experience in ways one might manipulate real world objects. These actions are
ones that many of us perform with ease, but offer a real cognitive and physical (often
painful and exhausting) challenge for traumatic brain injured patients.
The physical attributes of the tangible user interfaces intentionally reflect the
size, weight, and scale of a tumbler. A silicon rubber mould was created from a plastic
prototype for each tangible user interface. Each prototype was then cold cast in silicon
rubber using the original mould, and coated with a soft adhesive fabric. The softness of
each tangible user interface protects the LCD display and TUI from accidental damage,
while creating a non-slip tactile outer surface for the patient to grip (Figure 17).
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Figure 17: The manufacture process for each TUI; image left - silicon mould, plastic TUI, and
cast TUI; image right – fabric-coated silicon TUI.
To conclude this section, I found intentionality and affordance particularly
relevant in conceptualising the design of the tangible user interface. Intentionality
frames the types of desired actions the designer wants to communicate to the user. The
affordance of each interface offers the user actions of reaching, grasping, lifting,
moving, and placing. The physical attributes of each tangible user interface implies
some form of intentionality for action, and, when acted upon by the user, creates some
effect in the environment. Affordances make the action possibilities clearer to the user
by virtue of their relationship to the environment, the task, and what the user perceives
in relation to their sensorimotor capabilities. The perceptual properties of each tangible
user interface are, thus, mapped fairly directly to the action systems of the patient.
5.3.4
Dourish’s fourth foundation: Coupling related to Elements
Dourish suggests ‘coupling’ is the action of binding entities together so that they
operate together to provide a new set of meaningful user functions. Coupling is the way
our actions are connected to the effects they have in an interactive environment.
Dourish states that effective communication relies on the ability of the user to control
the medium, and that feedback is an essential part of this control. According to Krueger,
coupling is the composition of relationships between actions, user ‘control’, and the
computer’s ‘response’. For Krueger, it was important for the user to determine and
understand how they influence events in an interactive environment. If a user
understands how they are influencing events, they may feel they are in control of some
76
part of their experience both directly and indirectly. Krueger notes that if the computer
response is not perceived, then user frustration may quickly become apparent.
According to Dourish, being able to control the coupling makes our use of
equipment more effective. For Dourish, the effective use of any tool requires the user to
continuously engage, separate, and reengage with it. In the Elements project, this is a
process of continual engagement, separation, and reengagement with the tangible user
interface and its effects on the environment. For example, how the patient might decide
to use the tangible user interface; pick it up and orient it correctly; move it to a different
part of the display; perhaps put it down again. This is a process of continual user
engagement and reengagement. The patient needs to be aware of the tangible user
interface, how it sits in their hand, how heavy it is, and so forth. When performing a
task, such as the Squiggles painting application, the tangible user interface should
‘disappear’ into the activity. At other moments, the patient would have to be aware of
the tangible user interface again as they change its position in relation to display.
Feedback
Audiovisual feedback is used to provide the patient with an indication that
something has happened as a result of their actions. The audiovisual feedback is
closely coupled to the movement actions of the patient (see Table 1). This is not simply
a matter of mapping the patient’s immediate activity at any one moment to some form of
feedback. Instead, coupling the user action to the audiovisual feedback operate
together to provide the patient with additional functions that revolve around
understanding the nature of their movement. It provides patients with additional
knowledge of the outcomes of their actions to aid in future movement planning.
The audiovisual feedback also directs the patient to focus their attention on the
external effects of their movement, rather than the internal biomechanics of the
movement itself. A recent review of motor learning techniques suggests that internally
focused movement can result in slow, consciously controlled movement that disrupts
performance (Wulf and Prinz 2001). Wulf et al. emphasise that externally focusing the
user’s attention on the anticipated effects of movement may enhance learning. They
observe that an external focus leads to more rapid, natural, and autonomous actions.
However, the precise nature of this effect is in need of further research and beyond the
scope of my exegesis.
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In addition to the audiovisual feedback, I incorporated tactile feedback delivered
to the patient via a small vibration motor embedded in the cylindrical tangible user
interface (Figure 18). The patient may feel a short, soft vibration when they are holding
the interface. The vibration is triggered when the tangible user interface is no longer
tracked by the computer vision system. The tactual feedback indicates two movement
errors: if the TUI is moved over the outside perimeter of the visual display; and if the
TUI is held incorrectly at an extreme angle so as to be unrecognisable to the computer
vision system. This feedback acts as a prompt for the patient to correct their movement
in the event these actions occur.
Figure 18: Images of design to accommodate electronics; 1) Plastic shell of cylindrical TUI; 2)
Soft polyurethane rubber casing cast onto the outside 3) Bluetooth electronics and vibration
motor inserted inside the TUI; 4) Electronic on/off switch located at the base of the TUI.
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Visibility
The visibility of the audiovisual feedback is designed to assist the user to
interpret and evaluate the consequences of their actions. The visibility of the graphic
environment and the user interface may also remind the patient of the possibilities for
action in executing a task. I use large graphic elements, very few colours to
overemphasise contrast, and similar graphic layout and feedback between tasks to aid
recognition and memory.
The audiovisual feedback is shared between the patient and therapist. The
therapist and the patient see the results of an action. The therapist observes the
feedback produced by the patient’s movements and guides them in ways to improve
their movement. The visibility of the system enables the patient and the therapist to
manage actions appropriate to current state of the system.
To conclude this section, I found Dourish’s notion of coupling particularly
constructive to understand how a users actions may be bound to the effects they have
in an interactive environment. For Krueger coupling is the composition of relationships
between actions, user control, and the computer’s response. In this regard I considered
how the audiovisual and tactile feedback are coupled to the user’s actions. The user
actions and the feedback operate together to provide the patient with additional sensory
information around understanding the nature of their movement. This additional
information (trajectory, speed, accuracy, location, and touch) provides patients with
additional knowledge of the outcomes of their actions to assist in planning further
movement.
5.3.5
Dourish’s fifth foundation: Metaphor related to Elements
As discussed in Chapter 3, Dourish suggests that user interface metaphors
provide the best use of coupling in interactive systems. A metaphor may suggest some
sort of action that can be performed by the user. Dourish claims that coupling and
metaphor provide ways for meaning to be made manifest and turned to use from
moment to moment. Similarly, Krueger suggests that metaphor refers to the actions that
are implied by the juxtaposition of an image with a graphic object. Dourish highlights
how metaphors can be characterised in approximate ways as aspects of representation
of an entity along two dimensions – ‘iconic/symbolic’ and ‘object/action’. Dourish notes
that the boundaries between iconic/symbolic and object/action can often be ambiguous.
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An entity can be representational, object, and action simultaneously, each carrying
different meanings, values and consequences.
In the Elements environment I considered how metaphors could be used to
inform the design of the tangible user interfaces. According to Kenneth Fishkin,
physically afforded metaphors can be used when parts of an interface are made
physically tangible (Fishkin 2004). A designer can use the shape, size, smell, colour,
and texture of an object to invoke a number of metaphorical links. Fishkin also suggests
that metaphor can be useful to constrain the user to imitation. For example, if a tangible
user interface is a literal representation of a real world artifact, then the user will refer to
the real world artifact as a cue to inform and constrain the type of action they perform.
Fishkin recognises that metaphor has such cognitive power that it should be
used with care. The goal of my project is to lower the cognitive overhead required to
use the tangible user interfaces, and as such I have made minimal use of metaphor in
their design. I designed the tangible user interfaces as an analogy to the shape and
size of a tumbler. Thus the operation of the tangible user interface is designed to match
the physical actions to those of the analogised object.
The analogy applies to both the shape of the object, and to the likely movement
behaviour of the object when used. The physical dimensions of each tangible user
interface afford the same graspable actions used to manipulate them. Here, I use
metaphor to suggest the sort of physical actions the user might similarly perform in the
real world.
In most cases the Elements audiovisual feedback does not refer to any realworld analogy to a physical effect (with the possible exception of the water ripple).
Rather, the audiovisual feedback serves to reinforce the actions of the user. Each
feature is an iconic representation of an action movement it depicts. For example, the
fading trail is an iconic representation of the movement path of the tangible user
interface.
The audiovisual feedback serves to provide information in addition to the normal
flow of visual and movement-related feedback. I deliberately do not connect the
aesthetics of the audiovisual feedback to any real-world analogy. For example, moving
my coffee cup across my desk obviously does not leave a glowing trail behind it. I use
the feedback as a strategy to increase the visibility of the user’s actions, and thus
80
provide opportunities for the patient to interpret and create additional meaning in the
way they understand their effects in the environment.
To conclude this section, Dourish’s explanation of metaphor raised my
awareness to the ways action and meaning might be communicated to the user. Fishkin
further emphasises how metaphor might be considered in practice to suggest user
actions. I have made simple use of metaphor to inform the physical attributes of the
tangible user interface that alert the patient to the likely possibilities for action the object
affords. I have made limited use of metaphor to decrease the likely cognitive overhead
required to perform actions in the Elements environment.
5.4
User evaluation of Elements
To conclude this chapter, I will discuss the patient’s experience of Elements as a
method of evaluating the design. Traumatic brain injured patients were invited to take
part of a study at Epworth Hospital, Melbourne, by the senior physiotherapist. The study
was approved by the Human Ethics Committees of RMIT University and Epworth
Hospital. All testing was conducted onsite at Epworth Hospital. The study consisted of
three, one hour sessions per week over a course of four weeks.
Because the Elements system can be scaled to the patient’s individual skill
level, inclusion criteria were broad. Each patient experienced deficits in upper-limb
function and considered the study important. Patients were also required to have
cognitive capacity to provide informed consent (Appendices B - E). While there was no
specific prerequisite for visual acuity, using the program requires a level of vision
equivalent to reading a book or watching television, which all the patients could do.
Twelve patients were introduced to the Elements system. A preliminary trial of
three patients was recorded on video and a subsequent interview was conducted. My
approach was adapted from the video-cued recall method of retrospectively reporting
user experience (Suchman and Trigg 1991). The initial trials were a valuable starting
point to streamline and simplify the process of evaluation for subsequent patient
studies. This rehearsal established the effectiveness and viability of evaluating the
patient’s experience using the system.
Reporting the user experience of patients using video-cued recall had mixed
success. Problems of memory, emotional, and behavioural regulation, combined with
81
physical disability made the process of self-reported user feedback arduous. Patients
had problems remembering what they had been doing in detail five minutes prior, had
speech impairments that limited their ability to verbalise their experience, and difficulty
writing.
In response to these impairments, I developed a qualitative (or self-report)
questionnaire as a method of capturing the user’s experience in more detail (Appendix
F). The questionnaire is adapted from similar questionnaires that characterise and
measure user experience with interactive computer environments (Boguslawski 2007)
(Chen, Koldo et al. 2005) (IJsselsteijn, Poels et al. 2007) (Kalawsky 1997) (Witmer and
Singer 1998). While far from ideal as a method for rigorous qualitative research, this
simple survey technique did raise a number of important issues and identify some of the
experiences felt by patients. The questionnaire enabled me to assess the usability of
the system from the patient’s perspective, its aesthetic appeal, and their level of
engagement with it.
In a summary of my study, all the patients expressed a desire to interact with the
system in a creative capacity. I observed an increased level of motivation, engagement
and enjoyment while the patient used Elements. The patients indicated that the system
was intuitive to use and that the therapy, particularly the exploratory environments,
represented a fun diversion from the normal rigours of their physical therapy in
rehabilitation. The patients responded well to the technology and to the aesthetic of the
therapeutic environments, which are far removed from their normal experience in
rehabilitation. The results suggest that creative and game style applications tailored for
traumatic brain injured patients were pleasurable and engaging (Appendix G). The
audiovisual feedback provided the patients with a sense of agency and control, so that,
when one considers that a sense of agency is intimately entwined with a sense of
purpose, achievement and happiness, Elements may be a means to improve their
quality of life in general.
PhD student Nick Mumford devised a series of quantitative approaches to
assess the extent to which movement skills were enhanced using the Elements
interactive environment (Mumford, Duckworth et al. 2010). Mumford’s analysis of the
patients’ performance scores shows significant improvements in movement accuracy,
efficiency, and attention to task. He suggests that the performance effects observed
may be the result of the audiovisual feedback stimulating a cognitive change at the level
82
of movement planning. However, a detailed discussion of these results is beyond the
scope of my exegesis.
In the next chapter, I will conclude with a discussion on the characteristics of
embodied interaction design as applied to the development of my project. I will also
discuss directions for future research and its broader implications in the rehabilitation
field.
83
Chapter 6:
Conclusion:
Project conclusion and directions for future research.
6.1
Conclusion
I have explored the notion of embodied interaction within the context of
designing an interactive artwork for movement rehabilitation of traumatic brain injured
patients. Embodiment concerns the reciprocal relationship that exists between mind,
biology, and the environment (Gibson 1979).
This study indicates that interactive therapeutic treatments that use an
embodied approach may improve the rate of recovery and increase the quality of life for
patients. A substantial body of evidence suggests that interactive technologies can
provide alternative therapeutic solutions that support individuals with disabilities (Cobb
and Sharkey 2007). In particular, virtual reality has been shown to improve performance
in patients suffering from traumatic brain injury (Holden 2005) (Rose, Brooks et al.
2005). However, we observed along with Rizzo that interactive computer systems for
movement rehabilitation are often constrained by conventional desktop interfaces
(Rizzo 2005). When used as rehabilitation tools, these physical interfaces are often
inappropriate for patients to relearn a wide range of movements associated with daily
living and self-care.
This study was motivated by a need to explore the design of user interfaces for
specialised rehabilitation applications. Conventional interfaces, such as keyboard and
mouse, are designed to be simple to operate from a perceptual-motor perspective
(Djajadiningrat, Matthews et al. 2007). This shifts their potential as learning tools almost
completely to the cognitive domain. Conventional interfaces may not reflect how we
interact with our environment and manipulate objects in the real world. This issue
suggests the need to develop user interfaces that can elicit the richness of body
movement and help patients relearn basic perceptual-motor skills.
Rizzo suggests that to rebuild a patient’s body sense and their ability to effect
action, user interfaces should target specific movement actions in ecologically valid
ways (Rizzo 2005). ‘Ecological validity’ refers to the degree of relevance or similarity
84
that activities in a virtual environment have relative to the ‘real’ world, and in its value for
improving a patient’s everyday functioning. The main streams of sensory information
that contribute to their sense of embodiment (visual, auditory, tactile, and somatic) are
fragmented as a result of their injury. Multimedia environments that can correlate a
patient’s sense of embodiment may assist in the acquisition of movement skills that
transfer to the real world (Holden 2005).
6.1.1
An embodied approach to the design of Elements
This study also suggests that Paul Dourish’s theory of embodiment is
particularly useful in helping designers focus on user interaction with computer
environments (Dourish 2001). Dourish asserts that embodied interaction serves to
provide a particular perspective on the relationship between people and computer
systems. Dourish’s perspective allows designers to unify the physical world and
computer worlds. In this way, designers may create user interactions that are more
closely matched to our everyday experiences and abilities. His notion of embodied
interaction synthesises views on embodiment in ways that reconsider the nature of user
interaction with computer systems.
Dourish explores phenomenological theories to emphasise how human actions
are embodied actions. He defines embodied interaction through five interrelated
foundational theories relating to ‘ontology’, ‘intersubjectivity’, ‘intentionality’, ‘coupling’,
and ‘metaphor’. In Chapter 3, we explore how each of Dourish’s foundation provides a
particular perspective on action and meaning and how they play a role in understanding
embodied interaction with computer systems. These perspectives support interaction
design that focuses on a first-person, lived, body experience and its relation to the
environment. In this way, Dourish opens a user-centered design approach to the
physical and social realities in which we are all embedded. He implies that we create
meaning by engaging with, and acting in, the everyday world. Dourish identifies that the
relationship between ‘action’ and ‘meaning’ is central to embodied interaction. Since
artists are primarily concerned with meaning, it is precisely here that common ground is
opened up for both communities in art and human computer interaction.
In Chapter 4, I discuss the interactive new media art work of Myron Krueger. I
explore his techniques and methods for developing VIDEOPLACE as they relate to
Dourish’s five foundations for embodied interaction. Krueger helps us understand how
user interaction and experience are derived from ‘response’, ‘reinforcement’,
85
‘participation’, ‘control’, ‘context’, and ‘perception’. Technological and creative elements
of his work can be seen in the genealogy of recent rehabilitation systems that explore
playful and/or creative experiences for disabled participants (Brooks and Hasselblad
2004). Krueger’s work is of particular interest as it employs an unencumbered mode of
interaction whereby the participant does not have to wear any electronic sensing
apparatus. A high level of user engagement is also observed in his work.
Krueger’s work has been central to the development of my project. I wanted the
patient to experience a range of interactive styles so that it might empower them both
functionally and creatively. In Chapter 5, I applied the insights of Dourish and Krueger
to the design of my project. Their views encapsulated the way I understand, and reflect
on, the relationship between the patient, the task, and the interactive environment.
6.1.2
Embodiment and play in Elements
As a designer, my goal was to be sensitive to the patient’s sense of embodiment
and how the environment might be presented to afford new opportunities for action.
Elements provides an interaction aesthetic that is coupled to the individual’s perceptual
and motor capabilities, building a durable sense of agency. Elements enables this by
combining variable degrees of audiovisual feedback with the underlying forms of user
interaction that provide patients with the opportunity to alter the aesthetics in real time.
Elements relies on user interaction occurring in space, through the body, and
with sustained engagement with physical artifacts. These environmental parameters are
designed in such a way that individual patients can develop new movement solutions
and relearn basic movement skills.
There are three general goals of Elements. One was to improve the patient’s
general ability to respond to the complexity of various interactive environments. Another
was to tailor the environmental constraints of the physical installation to the patient’s
needs. Finally, as a designer, I needed to increase the patient’s general capacity to plan
and initiate movements, and to transfer these actions to normal physical activities in the
real world.
The means of supporting this change is achieved through three main avenues:
(i) the process of tailoring the complexity of the interactive environments to the
individual patient; (ii) providing audiovisual computer feedback to compensate for the
86
patient’s cognitive and sensory limitations; and (iii) presenting aesthetically stimulating
and challenging tasks that draw the patient into the learning space and help motivate
interaction.
The two aesthetic modes of user interaction provide the patient with many
options for movement, ranging from the clear goals of the game-like tasks to the
ambiguity of the exploratory artistic environments. The provision of audiovisual
feedback served to augment the relationship between the moving body and its effects
on the environment. The feedback enabled the user to better predict the changing flow
of sensory information that occurred as a result of their movement. This is regarded as
a vital aspect of movement control (Garbarini and Adenzato 2004).
I observed how the exploratory tasks tended to heighten the user’s sense of
agency. Patients’ early tentative explorations became perceptual events that were at
once curious and compelling. The aesthetic seemed to draw the user into the space,
encouraging a cycle of further exploration and play. This sense of involvement in an
activity seemed to be characterised by a sense of novelty, enjoyment, and
accomplishment. By not making the relationship between movement and its effects as
obvious and by removing explicit goals, playful interaction was afforded. We may
observe that playful user interaction learned by cause and effect stimulated the patient’s
level of motivation and engagement. Chapter 5 indicates how this approach to playful
forms of embodied interaction exceeded my expectations both in terms of therapeutic
effect and user engagement.
6.1.3
A design framework used to develop Elements
To conclude my exegesis I have structured a framework based on Dourish’s five
foundations of embodiment, and Krueger’s related techniques (Figure 19). Each
foundation is interrelated to form a holistic approach to the design of embodied
interaction. My framework may provide an embodied approach to design that begins to
address the ecological concerns of rehabilitation therapists. The framework may offer
designers and system developers some useful perspectives and themes. The
framework may be useful for analysis and conceptual guidance for design of interactive
environments for movement learning.
In conclusion, we see that the theories of Dourish and the techniques of Krueger
have facilitated an embodied approach to the design of my project. The resulting
87
framework serves to focus my view, providing me with concepts that systematise my
thinking and allow for reflection. The framework is organised on two levels of
abstraction. Themes on the top level derive from Dourish’s foundations for embodied
interaction and offer design perspectives at an abstract level. These themes define
broad research concerns regarding the embodied nature of user experience. Each
theme is elaborated by a set of concepts derived from Dourish and Krueger. They
provide analytical design tools for summarising generic issues that may guide the
design process.
Figure 19: An embodied interaction design framework I used to develop Elements.
The framework is not prescriptive, and thus may need to be interpreted,
expanded, and otherwise made appropriate for other situations. It may contribute to the
larger research agenda of embodied interaction which may assist traumatic brain
injured patients correlate a sense of embodiment. My approach relies on user
experience of interaction that is tangible, physical, and embedded in space. My original
contribution to knowledge is the Elements design, an interactive environment that may
enable patients to relearn movement skills, raise their level of self-esteem, sense of
achievement, and behavioural skills.
6.2
Future directions
I have suggested the Elements system allows transformative effects in the
patient. These results suggest further opportunity for practitioners in a range of
disciplines, especially those involved in art and design for therapeutic environments. As
a result of Elements, we may identify four main directions for future research.
88
6.2.1
Moral and ethical obligations
The study raises interesting questions around the moral and ethical implications
for patients and therapists. As a researcher directly involved in the application of
technology for rehabilitation, I have a responsibility for the promotion and maintenance
of health. This is particularly important where research with patient populations require
a rational accounting for the potential risks and benefits associated with the deployment
of interactive media for rehabilitative treatments.
The neuroplasticity of the human brain is a fundamental scientific finding that
supports the basis for treatment of many forms of acquired brain injury. Neuroscience
observes that the brain can metaphorically ’re-wire’ itself by creating new nerve cells
and reorganise synaptic pathways around damaged brain tissue (Rose 1996). Evidence
suggests brain activity associated with given functions, such as limb movement,
memory and learning, can move to a different location in the brain as a consequence of
normal experience or due to brain damage and recovery. In short, our mind and brain
can change with sensory experience.
Rose suggests that physical changes may occur in the human brain when users
are engaged with media technology. The consequences of these changes are not yet
fully understood (Rose 1996). Krueger adds, “For better or worse, we find that we must
foresee the ramifications of every action and be responsible for the consequences”
(Krueger 1991) p. 262. Researchers may need to identify and account for how
interactive media may potentially facilitate changes to the brain, and the consequences
of this sensorial reorganisation.
6.2.2
Computer game design for rehabilitation
Interactive computer games that support an embodied view of performance and
play are of particular interest for further research. Computer games provide many
instances whereby our sensory perceptions are altered and enhanced. For example,
numerous studies reported by Shawn Green and Daphne Bavelier suggest that playing
interactive computer games has profound effects on neuroplasticity and learning (Green
and Bavelier 2004). Computer games have been shown to increase perception and
cognition in gamers compared with non-gamers by heightening spatial and sensory
motor skills. These improvements could generalise to a number of real world scenarios,
e.g., improved response time when driving a car, or faster performance in sport. The
89
practical therapeutic uses of interactive computer games could be numerous,
particularly when in service of individuals with diminished movement and cognitive
function.
Rizzo suggests game design may provide linkage to a progressive reward and
goal structure that is challenging, engaging, and motivating for traumatic brain injured
patients (Rizzo 2005). Hence, the integration of gaming features in interactive
movement rehabilitation may prove to be a fruitful research direction. Designers and
media artists may consider how to adapt the formulas that commercial game
developers traditionally use in the creation of computer games to the focused needs of
brain injured patients.
6.2.3
Motivating patients in rehabilitation
This study suggests that interactive computer environments may promote
therapy by engaging the patient in creative and playful activities. Future research may
explore how the designer may harness these activities to motivate the learning of
movement and other human skills. Petersen et al. identify human factors such as
curiosity, exploration, and imagination as the key attributes of motivation. They suggest
these factors need to be incorporated into the human computer interaction worldview of
usability, and user engagement (Petersen, Iversen et al. 2004). As research into
interactive rehabilitation progresses, media developers may need to tease out the
particular aspects of training and other factors that best elicit motivation and change.
6.2.4
Broader applications
Furthermore, it may be possible to tailor my research for a broader spectrum of
people with mobility impairments. A recent study by Dr Dido Green et al. at Guy’s and
St Thomas Childrens Hospital, London, suggests the Elements system may have
benefits for children with neuro-developmental (e.g. cerebral palsy) and acquired brain
disorders (e.g. childhood stroke and acquired brain injury) (Green, Lin et al. 2009)
(Green, Lin et al. 2010). Her findings have shown profound benefits in children
relearning movement skills. This suggests that the Elements system could be used to
treat a wider range of patients and age groups with neurological upper-limb movement
impairments.
90
In general terms, this study suggests there are benefits to be had when
designers and media artists work together with health scientists. Multidisciplinary
projects such as Elements may help shape the use of interactive technology in
rehabilitation practice. As Dourish points out, art and design can make significant
contributions to this field. He notes that artists’ and designers’ perspective on interaction
design “…reflects an attempt to make interaction ‘engaging’ and marks a transition from
thinking about the user ‘interface’ to thinking about the user ‘experience’” (Dourish
2001) p. 202. Krueger adds that enriching the quality of user experience with computer
media will depend on artists revealing “…new sensations and new insights about how
our bodies interact with reality and on the quality of the interactions that are created”
(Krueger 1991) p. 265. The positive results of surveys related to Elements suggest
there is a reciprocal role for media art and health science in developing therapeutic
applications that are rich with future possibilities.
91
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix A:
Technical Specifications
98
Appendix B:
Plain language statement for TBI participants
99
Appendix C:
Plain language statement for TBI carers
101
Appendix D:
Consent form for TBI participants
103
Appendix E:
Consent form for TBI carers
104
Appendix F:
Elements Experience Questionnaire
105
Appendix G:
Elements Experience Questionnaire results
106
Appendix H:
Australia Council for the Arts, Promotional Material
107
Artery, Issue 8, 2008, p12
Appendix I:
RMIT University, Promotional Material
108
The Australian Financial Review Supplement
Making the Future Work, RMIT, 2009
Appendix J:
Super Human 2009, Exhibition Catalogue
109
Australian Network for Art and Technology (ANAT)
97
Appendix A: Technical Specifications
Elements was developed using the following:
Software:
Imaging
Photoshop
3D Modelling
3D Studio Max
Interactive 3D Authoring Software
3D VIA Virtools
Database Management
MySQL
Video Tracking
PointGreyTM - Compass 3D
Custom compiled software
Hardware:
PC
Shuttle XPC SN26P
AMD ATHLON 64 X2 Dual Core 4400+
2GB RAM
NVidia Geforce 7900 GT Dual Link
Computer Video Camera
PointGreyTM Bumblebee 2 – 640x480 pixel image @ 48Hz
Display
Samsung 40” LCD display
Audio
Altec Lansing 5.1 surround sound speakers
Tangible User Interface
ArduinoTM Microcontroller - Blue Tooth
SparkFunTM Rumble Pack
98
Appendix B: Plain language statement for TBI participants.
EPWORTH HOSPITAL
Elements: Clinical Design and Evaluation of a Virtual Reality Augmented Workspace for Movement
Rehabilitation of Traumatic Brain Injury
Plain Language Statement
Primary Investigator:
Associate Investigators:
Dr. Peter Wilson (Associate Professor, Psychology, RMIT
University, peter.h.wilson@rmit.edu.au, 9925 2906)
Nick Mumford (PhD student, Division of Psychology, RMIT
University, nicholas.mumford@student.rmit.edu.au)
Jonathan Duckworth (PhD student, Creative Media, RMIT
University, jonathan.duckworth@rmit.edu.au)
Dear Participant,
You are invited to participate in a research project being conducted at Epworth hospital. This
information sheet describes the project in straightforward language, or ‘plain English’. Please
read this sheet carefully and be confident that you understand its contents before deciding
whether to participate.
Why is this study being conducted?
The aim of the Elements Project is to design, develop and evaluate an interactive virtual
environment that supports movement assessment and rehabilitation for patients recovering from
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI). This part of the project is designed to test the effectiveness of the
Elements rehab system using a group of participants with TBI.
Who can participate?
You can participate in the study if you are aged from 18 to 50 years, can provide informed
consent to participate in this study, and have a score of 2 or more for muscle activity on the
Oxford scale.
If I agree to participate, what will I be required to do?
The training itself will involve 12 1-hour sessions using Elements, an interactive rehab system.
Half of our participants will be assigned randomly to a training group and asked to use the
system three times a week, for 4 weeks, while still doing their normal physiotherapy. The
remaining (waitlist) participants will first continue involvement in their current physiotherapy but
then later be given the opportunity to use Elements. The system involves moving hand-held
objects over a large LCD screen, mounted flat on a desk. The screen will display the training
environments that you will interact with. These environments and feedback provided by the
system are designed to encourage movement in a natural and engaging way. We will track your
movements using a special camera and provide feedback to help improve your physical skills.
All participants will have their performance on upper-limb tasks assessed twice, immediately
before and after the course of training (each assessment will take around 15 minutes). The main
assessment tasks are: the Upper Extremity Functional Index, the Action Research Arm Test, the
Box and Block Test, a questionnaire the Neurobehavioural Functional Index (NFI), and a brief
survey on what you thought of the program. Your main carer will also be asked to complete the
NFI and a questionnaire; we will ask your permission to do this. We would also like to interview
you regarding your experience using Elements. To do this we will film you using the program and
later ask you to describe your experience while watching yourself on video. This project will be
conducted at the ELIM Building at the Epworth hospital.
99
Are there any risks or disadvantages associated with participation?
No. This study is testing a program designed to enhance current rehabilitation routines, and will
not involve any activities that are more strenuous or risky than your normal rehabilitation therapy.
Additionally, the standard Epworth hospital rehabilitation safety procedures will be used.
What will happen to the information I provide?
To maintain your privacy, your results on the Elements program will be coded and stored on a
computer and secured with password access for 5 years. The scores for the standard
evaluations will be stored in a lockable filing cabinet in the Division of Psychology, RMIT City
Campus, and later shredded after 5 years. No findings that could identify you will be published.
Only the investigators will have access to the research data. All data and results will be handled
in a strictly confidential manner, under guidelines set out by the National Health and Medical
Research Council. The chief investigator is responsible for maintaining this confidentiality. This
project is subject to the requirements of the Human Research Ethics Committee of the Epworth
Hospital and the RMIT University. However, you must be aware that there are legal limitations to
data confidentiality.
Can I withdraw from the study if I wish?
Since your participation in this study is voluntary, you can withdraw from the study at any time,
and have any unprocessed data previously supplied by you removed. If you decline the invitation
to participate or decide to withdraw from the study, your current rehabilitation treatment will not
be affected. Following the completion of this study, a brief summary of the results will be
available to you on request.
What if I have any concerns during the study?
The Investigators will be available throughout the study if you have any questions. This project has
been approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of Epworth Hospital. If you have any
complaints you should contact the Human Research Ethics Committee, Epworth Hospital, Ph: 9426
6755.
Whom should I contact if I have any further questions?
Any questions or concerns regarding this study should be directed to the Chief Investigator,
A/Prof. Peter Wilson (details provided above). The investigators also encourage prospective
participants to discuss participation in this study with their family or physiotherapist, should you
wish to.
Yours Sincerely,
________________________________________
A/Prof.Peter Wilson - PhD.
_______________________________________
Mr. Nicholas Mumford - B.AppSc (Psychology) (Hons)
_______________________________________
Mr. Jonathan Duckworth – BSc Hons, MA (Design)
100
Appendix C: Plain language statement for the TBI carers.
EPWORTH HOSPITAL
Elements: Clinical Design and Evaluation of a Virtual Reality Augmented Workspace for Movement
Rehabilitation of Traumatic Brain Injury
Plain Language Statement
Chief Investigator:
Associate Investigator
Dr. Peter Wilson (Associate Professor, Psychology, RMIT
University, peter.h.wilson@rmit.edu.au, 9925 2906)
Mr. Nick Mumford (PhD student, Division of Psychology, RMIT
University, s3021329@student.rmit.edu.au)
Jonathan Duckworth (PhD student, Creative Media, RMIT
University, jonathan.duckworth@rmit.edu.au)
Dear Participant,
You are invited to participate in a research project being conducted at Epworth hospital. This
information sheet describes the project in straightforward language, or ‘plain English’. Please
read this sheet carefully and be confident that you understand its contents before deciding
whether to participate.
Why is this study being conducted?
The aim of the Elements Project is to design, develop and evaluate an interactive virtual
environment that supports movement assessment and rehabilitation for patients recovering from
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI). This specific component of the Elements Project is designed to
gather information from the primary carer of a patient with TBI regarding their views of the
Elements program, and any effect it had on the TBI patient in their care.
Who can participate?
You can participate in this study if you are currently the primary carer for a person undergoing
rehabilitation for TBI who is participating in the Elements project.
If I agree to participate, what will I be required to do?
If you take part in this study you will be asked to complete a questionnaire regarding the
participation of the patient with TBI who is in your care, called the Neurobehavioral Functioning
Inventory (NFI). This questionnaire relates to symptoms and problems commonly encountered
by people who have experienced neurological damage. Completing this questionnaire will take
approximately 30 minutes. We will also ask you to complete a brief program feedback
questionnaire, which relates to any observations you have made about the participant’s
behaviour or abilities while they have been involved in the virtual reality training. The patient in
your care will also be asked to consent to your participation.
What are the risks or disadvantages associated with participation?
There are no risks or disadvantages associated with completing these questionnaires.
What will happen to the information I provide?
To maintain your privacy, your responses to the NFI and feedback questionnaire will be secured in
a lockable filing cabinet in the RMIT Division of Psychology offices at the RMIT City Campus, to
be disposed of using a lockable rubbish bin after 5 years. Only the investigators will have access
to the data. No findings that could identify you will be published. All data and results will be
handled in a strictly confidential manner, under guidelines set out by the National Health and
Medical Research Council. The chief investigator is responsible for maintaining this
confidentiality. This project is subject to the requirements of the Human Research Ethics
Committee of the Epworth Hospital and the RMIT University. However, you must be aware that
there are legal limitations to data confidentiality.
101
Can I withdraw from the study if I wish?
Since your participation in this study is voluntary, you can withdraw from the study at any time,
and have any unprocessed data previously supplied by you removed. Following the completion
of this study, a brief summary the results will be available to you on request.
What if I have any concerns during the study?
The Investigators will be available throughout the study if you have any questions. This project has
been approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of Epworth Hospital. If you have any
complaints you should contact the Human Research Ethics Committee, Epworth Hospital, Ph: 9426
6755.
Whom should I contact if I have any further questions?
Any questions or concerns regarding this study should be directed to the Chief Investigator, Dr.
Peter Wilson (details provided above).
Yours Sincerely,
____________________________________
A/Prof. Peter Wilson - PhD.
______________________________________
Mr. Nicholas Mumford - B.AppSc (Psychology) (Hons)
_______________________________________
Mr. Jonathan Duckworth – BSc Hons, MA (Design)
102
Appendix D: Consent form for TBI participants
Elements: Clinical Design and Evaluation of a Virtual Reality Augmented Workspace
for Movement Rehabilitation of Traumatic Brain Injury.
Consent form
I, .........................................................., have read and understood the information contained in
the Plain Language Statement regarding the project titled ‘ELEMENTS: Clinical Design and
Evaluation of a Virtual Reality Augmented Workspace for Movement Rehabilitation of
Traumatic Brain Injury’.
I understand that:
This study is a quality improvement project and is for research purposes.
My participation in this project is voluntary and that I am free to withdraw at any time,
and free to withdraw any unprocessed identifiable data previously supplied.
I am required to interact with a computer program by performing arm movements. I
understand that standardised analyses will be conducted to assess my movement
abilities.
I understand that video footage may be taken during my participation in this project,
subject to the participant’s consent.
The results and data will remain confidential and that only the researchers will have
access to the information. I also understand that the research results may be presented
at conferences and published in journals, on condition that my name is not used. I am
aware that there are legal limitations to data confidentiality.
By checking the box below, I consent to my primary carer completing the NFI: carer
form, and program feedback questionnaire.
I may contact the researchers at any time, and any questions I have asked have been
answered to my satisfaction. I also understand that I may contact the Human Research
Ethics Committee of Epworth Hospital or RMIT University if I have any concerns.
I understand that Peter Wilson is the Principal Researcher in conjunction with Nick
Mumford and Jonathan Duckworth.
This form will be retained, once signed, by the principal researcher.
NAME OF PARTICIPANT (in block letters): ......................................................................
Signature: .......................................................
PRINCIPAL RESEARCHER: A/Prof. Peter Wilson
DATE: ......................................
Signature: ......................................................
DATE: ......................................
103
Appendix E: Consent form for TBI carers
Elements: Clinical Design and Evaluation of a Virtual Reality Augmented Workspace
for Movement Rehabilitation of Traumatic Brain Injury.
Consent form
I, .........................................................., have read and understood the information contained in
the Plain Language Statement regarding the project titled ‘ELEMENTS: Clinical Design and
Evaluation of a Virtual Reality Augmented Workspace for Movement Rehabilitation of
Traumatic Brain Injury’.
I understand that:
This study is a quality improvement project and is for research purposes.
My participation in this project is voluntary and that I am free to withdraw at any time,
and free to withdraw any unprocessed identifiable data previously supplied.
I am required to complete the Neuobehavioural Functioning Index: Carer Form, and
program feedback questionnaire.
The results will remain confidential and that only the researchers will have access to the
data. I also understand that the research results may be presented at conferences and
published in journals, on condition that my name is not used. I am aware that there are
legal limitations to data confidentiality.
I may contact the researchers at any time, and any questions I have asked have been
answered to my satisfaction. I also understand that I may contact the Human Research
Ethics Committee of Epworth Hospital or RMIT University if I have any concerns.
I understand that Peter Wilson is the Principal Researcher in conjunction with Nick
Mumford and Jonathan Duckworth.
This form will be retained, once signed, by the principal researcher.
NAME OF PARTICIPANT (in block letters): ......................................................................
Signature: .......................................................
DATE: ......................................
PRINCIPAL RESEARCHER: A/Prof. Peter Wilson
Signature: ......................................................
DATE: ......................................
104
Appendix F: Elements Experience Questionnaire
105
Appendix G: Elements Experience Questionnaire results
106
Appendix H: Australia Council for the Arts, Promotional Material
Artery, Issue 8, 2008, p12
107
Appendix I:
RMIT University, Promotional Material
The Australian Financial Review Supplement
Making the Future Work, RMIT, 2009
108
Appendix J: Super Human 2009, Exhibition Catalogue
Australian Network for Art and Technology (ANAT)
109
Appendix J: Exhibition Catalogue Continued…
110
Appendix J: Exhibition Catalogue Continued…
111
Appendix J: Exhibition Catalogue Continued…
112
Appendix J: Exhibition Catalogue Continued…
113
Appendix J: Exhibition Catalogue Continued…
114
Appendix J: Exhibition Catalogue Continued…
115
Appendix J: Exhibition Catalogue Continued…
116
117
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