Aakvik, A., Salvanes, K. G. and Vaage, K. (2010), ‘Measuring heterogeneity in the returns to education using an education reform’, European Economic Review 54(4), 483–500.
Abadie, A. (2003), ‘Semiparametric instrumental variable estimation of treatment response models’, Journal of Econometrics 113(2), 231–263.
Acemoglu, D. and Angrist, J. (2001), How large are human-capital externalities? Evidence from compulsory schooling laws, in B. S. Bernanke and K. Rogoff, eds, ‘NBER Macroeconomics Annual 2000’, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, pp. 9–59.
- Act No. 186/1960 (passed in December) on the Education and Training System restored nine years of compulsory schooling. The earliest birth cohort affected by this reform is 1947, provided that the change took effect in the 1961/62 school year, affecting those who were in eighth grade in the 1960/61 school year. In 1976, the Communist Party initiated a reform on the Further Development of the Czechoslovak Education System, which entailed both a change in the structure of the primary and secondary education system and an extension of the length of compulsory schooling to ten years (consisting of eight grades in basic school and two grades in secondary school). A law in 1978 formalized these changes and they were gradually implemented starting around 1979. The earliest birth cohort affected by this reform is 1964, provided that the change took effect in the 1979/80 school year, affecting those who were in ninth grade in the 1978/79 school year. Act No.
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- Act No. 186/1960 (passed in December) on the Education and Training System restored nine years of compulsory schooling. The earliest birth cohort affected by this reform is 1947, provided that the change took effect in the 1961/62 school year, affecting those who were in eighth grade in the 1960/61 school year. In 1976, the Communist Party initiated a reform on the Further Development of the Czechoslovak Education System, which entailed both a change in the structure of the primary and secondary education system and an extension of the length of compulsory schooling to ten years (consisting of eight grades in basic school and two grades in secondary school). A law in 1978 formalized these changes and they were gradually implemented starting around 1979. The earliest birth cohort affected by this reform is 1964, provided that the change took effect in the 1979/80 school year, affecting those who were in ninth grade in the 1978/79 school year. Act No.
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- After Estonia’s independence, the Education Act of March 23, 1992 abolished compulsory upper secondary education and introduced nine years of compulsory schooling starting at the age of 7. The earliest birth cohort affected by this change from 11 to 9 years of compulsory schooling is 1975, which could stop education at the end of the tenth grade in 59 Some sources cite 1949 as the year when seven years of schooling were made compulsory, as this was the year when it was introduced throughout the whole Soviet Union. Due to the ambiguity of the exact date and details, I do not consider this reform in the analysis. the 1991/92 school year.
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- Ahmed, A. M. and Lång, E. (2017), ‘The employability of ex-offenders: A field experiment in the Swedish labor market’, IZA Journal of Labor Policy 6(1), 6.
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Anderberg, D. and Zhu, Y. (2014), ‘What a difference a term makes: The effect of educational attainment on marital outcomes in the UK’, Journal of Population Economics 27(2), 387–419.
Angrist, J. D. and Pischke, J.-S. (2009), Mostly Harmless Econometrics: An Empiricist’s Companion, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
Aparicio Fenoll, A. and Kuehn, Z. (2017), ‘Compulsory schooling laws and migration across European countries’, Demography 54(6), 2181–2200.
- Arnet, M. (2000), Das Schulkonkordat vom 29. Oktober 1970 - Enstehung Geschichte Kommentar, Schweizerische Konferenz der kantonalen Erziehungsdirektoren (EDK), Bern.
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Atkinson, R. and Da Voudi, S. (2000), ‘The concept of social exclusion in the European Union: Context, development and possibilities’, JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies 38(3), 427–448.
Balestra, S. and Backes-Gellner, U. (2017), ‘Heterogeneous returns to education over the wage distribution: Who profits the most?’, Labour Economics 44, 89–105.
- Banks, J., Carvalho, L. S. and Perez-Arc, F. (2018), ‘Education, decision-making, and economic rationality’, Review of Economics and Statistics (forthcoming).
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- Before this reform, children were placed into two separate branches, one providing primary education between the ages of 6 and 13, and one providing preparatory primary education from age 6 to 9 followed by secondary education from age 10 to 17. The 1970 Act seems to have led to an increase in the length of compulsory schooling from 7 to 8 years, due to the fact that students had to stay in school until turning 14 instead of 13.71 The earliest birth cohort affected by this reform is 1958, provided that the change took effect in the 1971/72 school year, affecting those who were in seventh grade in the 1970/71 school year.
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Bertrand, M., Duflo, E. and Mullainathan, S. (2004), ‘How much should we trust differences-in-differences estimates?’, Quarterly Journal of Economics 119(1), 249–275.
Betts, J. R. (2011), The economics of tracking in education, in E. A. Hanushek, S. Machin and L. Woessmann, eds, ‘Handbook of the Economics of Education’, Vol. 3, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 341–381.
Black, S. E. and Devereux, P. J. (2011), Recent developments in intergenerational mobility, in D. Card and O. Ashenfelter, eds, ‘Handbook of Labor Economics’, Vol. 4, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 1487–1541.
Black, S. E., Devereux, P. J. and Salvanes, K. G. (2008), ‘Staying in the classroom and out of the maternity ward? The effect of compulsory schooling laws on teenage births’, Economic Journal 118(530), 1025–1054.
Black, S. E., Devereux, P. J., Lundborg, P. and Majlesi, K. (2018), ‘Learning to take risks? The effect of education on risk-taking in financial markets’, Review of Finance 22(3), 951–975.
- Bolzern, B. and Huber, M. (2017), ‘Testing the validity of the compulsory schooling law instrument’, Economics Letters 159, 23–27.
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- Bourguignon, F. and Chakravarty, S. R. (2003), ‘The measurement of multidimensional poverty’, Journal of Economic Inequality 1(1), 25–49.
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- Brandolini, A. and Cipollone, P. (2002), ‘Return to education in Italy: 1992-1997’, Unpublished Working Paper (Version September 25, 2002).
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Brilli, Y. and Tonello, M. (2018), ‘Does increasing compulsory education decrease or displace adolescent crime? New evidence from administrative and victimization data’, CESifo Economic Studies 64(1), 15–49.
Brunello, G., Fabbri, D. and Fort, M. (2013), ‘The causal effect of education on body mass: Evidence from Europe’, Journal of Labor Economics 31(1), 195–223.
Brunello, G., Fort, M. and Weber, G. (2009), ‘Changes in compulsory schooling, education and the distribution of wages in Europe’, Economic Journal 119(536), 516–539.
Brunello, G., Fort, M., Schneeweis, N. and Winter-Ebmer, R. (2016), ‘The causal effect of education on health: What is the role of health behaviors?’, Health Economics 25(3), 314–336.
Brunello, G., Fort, M., Weber, G. and Weiss, C. T. (2013), ‘Testing the internal validity of compulsory school reforms as instrument for years of schooling’, IZA Discussion Paper (No. 7533).
Brunello, G., Weber, G. and Weiss, C. T. (2017), ‘Books are forever: Early life conditions, education and lifetime earnings in Europe’, Economic Journal 127(600), 271–296.
- Buchinsky, M. (1994), ‘Changes in the U.S. wage structure 1963-1987: Application of quantile regression’, Econometrica 62(2), 405–458.
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- Bulgaria: The 1921 Public Enlightenment Act introduced seven years of compulsory schooling starting at the age of 7. The 1959 Law on Further Closer Links between School and Life and on the Further Development of Public Education extended compulsory schooling from 7 to 8 years, while maintaining school starting age at 7. The earliest birth cohort affected by this change is 1946, provided that the extension took effect in the 1960/61 school year, affecting those who were in seventh grade in the 1959/60 school year.
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Cabus, S. J. and De Witte, K. (2011), ‘Does school time matter? On the impact of compulsory education age on school dropout’, Economics of Education Review 30(6), 1384– 1398.
Cameron, A. C. and Miller, D. L. (2015), ‘A practitioner’s guide to cluster-robust inference ’, Journal of Human Resources 50(2), 317–372.
Card, D. (1999), The causal effect of education on earnings, in O. C. Ashenfelter and D. Card, eds, ‘Handbook of Labor Economics’, Vol. 3, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 1801– 1863.
Card, D. (2001), ‘Estimating the return to schooling: Progress on some persistent econometric problems’, Econometrica 69(5), 1127–1160.
- Carlsson, M., Dahl, G. B., Öckert, B. and Rooth, D.-O. (2015), ‘The effect of schooling on cognitive skills’, Review of Economics and Statistics 97(3), 533–547.
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Cavaille, C. and Marshall, J. (2019), ‘Education and anti-immigration attitudes: Evidence from compulsory schooling reforms across Western Europe.’, American Political Science Review 113(1), 254–263.
- Cerych, L. (1997), ‘Educational reforms in Central and Eastern Europe: Processes and outcomes’, European Journal of Education 32(1), 75–96.
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- Children have to start this class at the age of 6 and it is generally classified as ISCED level 1. The earliest affected birth cohort is 2003, as the provision came into effect in the 2009/10 school year.
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- CIA (1953), ‘Schools in Yugoslavia’, Central Intelligence Agency.
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Clark, D. and Royer, H. (2013), ‘The effect of education on adult mortality and health: Evidence from Britain’, American Economic Review 103(6), 2087–2120.
- Cole, S., Paulson, A. and Shastry, G. K. (2014), ‘Smart money? The effect of education on financial outcomes’, Review of Financial Studies 27(7), 2022–2051.
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- Commission of the European Communities (1987), The Education Structures in the Member States of the European Communities, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg.
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- courses. Students born on or after September 1, 1993 were affected by this reform, as it took effect in the 2009/10 school year.64 Malta: The Compulsory School Attendance Ordinance of 1924 made school attendance compulsory from the age of 6 to 12, and in 1928 it was extended from the age of 6 to 14. However, compulsory attendance only applied to children who were registered to attend school. The Compulsory Education Ordinance of 1946 introduced eight years of compulsory schooling for all children from the age of 6 to 14. The Education Act (No.
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Crespo, L., LoÃŒÂpez-Noval, B. and Mira, P. (2014), ‘Compulsory schooling, education, depression and memory: New evidence from SHARELIFE’, Economics of Education Review 43, 36–46.
Cygan-Rehm, K. (2018), ‘Is additional schooling worthless? Revising the zero returns to compulsory schooling in Germany’, CESifo Working Papers (No. 7191).
- Cygan-Rehm, K. and Maeder, M. (2013), ‘The effect of education on fertility: Evidence from a compulsory schooling reform’, Labour Economics 25, 35–48.
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- Czechia: After WWI, Czechoslovakia introduced eight years of compulsory schooling through the Small School Act of June 1922. The school starting age was six years and remained unchanged in all subsequent reforms. Act No. 95/1948 (passed in April) on the Basic Regulation of Comprehensive Education extended the length of compulsory schooling to nine years. The earliest birth cohort affected by this reform is 1934, provided that the change took effect in the 1948/49 school year, affecting those who were in eighth grade in the 1947/48 school year. Act No. 31/1953 on the Education System and Teacher Training reduced the length of compulsory schooling to eight years again. The earliest birth cohort affected by this reform is 1939, which could stop education after the eighth grade in the 1952/53 school year, provided that the change took effect in the 1953/54 school year.
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Delaney, J. M. and Devereux, P. J. (2019), ‘More education, less volatility? The effect of education on earnings volatility over the life cycle’, Journal of Labor Economics 37(1), 101–137.
- Denmark: The Primary School Act of May 18, 1937 introduced seven years of compulsory education, starting during the year a child turns 7 and lasting until the end of the school year during which a child turns 14. However, the structure of the school differed between the countryside and the capital region. This structural difference was abolished by the Executive Order on the Primary School Act of June 18, 1958. During the 1960s, it became more common for students to stay in school after completing compulsory education.
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- Description of compulsory schooling reforms by country Austria: The Federal Law (No. 241/1962) on Compulsory Schooling of July 25, 1962 extended the length of compulsory schooling from 8 to 9 years. Unlike the rest of the law, the provision on the extension came into force on September 1, 1966. The reform maintained that compulsory schooling starts on September 1 after a child’s sixth birthday.
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- Domovic, V. and Vizek Vidovic, V. (2015), Croatia: An overview of educational reforms, 1950-2014, in T. Corner, ed., ‘Education in the European Union: Post-2003 Member States’, Bloomsbury Academic, London, pp. 27–50.
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Dougherty, C. (2005), ‘Why are the returns to schooling higher for women than for men?’, Journal of Human Resources 40(4), 969–988.
- Dube, A. (2019), ‘Minimum wages and the distribution of family incomes’, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics (forthcoming).
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- Eurydice (1996), A Decade of Reforms at Compulsory Education Level in the European Union (1984-94), Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency, Brussels.
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- Eurydice (2012), Key Data on Education in Europe 2012, Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency, Brussels.
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- Felgueroso, F., GutieÃŒÂrrez-Domènech, M. and JimeÃŒÂnez-MartıÌÂn, S. (2014), ‘Dropout trends and educational reforms: The role of the LOGSE in Spain’, IZA Journal of Labor Policy 3(1), 9.
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- Finland: In 1921, six years of compulsory schooling starting at the age of 7 were introduced.
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Fischer, M., Karlsson, M. and Nilsson, T. (2013), ‘Effects of compulsory schooling on mortality: Evidence from Sweden’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 10(8), 3596–3618.
Fischer, M., Karlsson, M., Nilsson, T. and Schwarz, N. (2016), ‘The sooner the better? Compulsory schooling reforms in Sweden’, IZA Discussion Paper (No. 10430).
- Fort, M. (2006), ‘Educational reforms across Europe: A toolbox for empirical research’, Unpublished Working Paper (Version May 11, 2006).
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Fort, M., Schneeweis, N. and Winter-Ebmer, R. (2016), ‘Is education always reducing fertility ? Evidence from compulsory schooling reforms’, Economic Journal 126(595), 1823– 1855.
- France: In 1936, eight years of compulsory schooling between the ages of 6 and 14 were introduced. The decree of January 6, 1959 extended the length of compulsory schooling from 8 to 10 years, while maintaining school starting age at 6. The decree stipulated that the extension only applies to those who turn 6 years of age after January 1, 1959.
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Freeman, R. B. (1999), The economics of crime, in O. C. Ashenfelter and D. Card, eds, ‘Handbook of Labor Economics’, Vol. 3, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 3529–3571.
- Fries-Tersch, E., Tugran, T. and Bradley, H. (2017), 2016 Annual Report on intra-EU Labour Mobility, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.
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- Gabric, A. (2000), ‘The education system in Slovenia in the 20th century’, Družboslovne razprave XVI(55-71), 447–459.
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Galama, T., Lleras-Muney, A. and van Kippersluis, H. (2018), The Effect of Education on Health and Mortality: A Review of Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Evidence, Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Economics and Finance.
Garrouste, C. (2010), 100 Years of Educational Reforms in Europe: A Contextual Database, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.
- Gathmann, C., Jürges, H. and Reinhold, S. (2015), ‘Compulsory schooling reforms, education and mortality in twentieth century Europe’, Social Science & Medicine 127, 74–82.
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- Georgeoff, J. (1979), Rural education in Bulgaria: Contemporary development and policies, in I. Volgyes, ed., ‘The Peasantry of Eastern Europe’, Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp. 123–139.
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- Germany: The Compulsory School Act of July 6, 1938 introduced eight years of compulsory schooling, starting at the age 6 in what was then Nazi Germany. In East Germany, the Education Act of December 2, 1959 extended compulsory schooling from 8 to 10 years.
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Geruso, M. and Royer, H. (2018), ‘The impact of education on family formation: Quasiexperimental evidence from the UK’, NBER Working Paper (No. 24332).
- Greece: Compulsory schooling for six years from the age of 6 to 12 has existed since 1927. In 1964, compulsory schooling was extended from 6 to 9 years. However, this reform was never completed (Kontogiannopoulos, 1978). During the military regime (April 1967 - July 1974), the length of compulsory schooling was reversed to six years. Article 16 of the 1975 Greek Constitution enshrined nine years of compulsory schooling. This provision was made a reality by the Education Act of April 5, 1976 (Law 309/1976). It extended the length of compulsory schooling from 6 to 9 years, as of the 1976/77 school year (Kazamias, 1978), although its full implementation took until 1980. The earliest birth cohort affected by this reform is 1964, which was in sixth grade in the 1975/76 school year.
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Grenet, J. (2013), ‘Is extending compulsory schooling alone enough to raise earnings? Evidence from French and British compulsory schooling laws’, Scandinavian Journal of Economics 115(1), 176–210.
Grossman, M. (2006), Education and nonmarket outcomes, in E. A. Hanushek and F. Welch, eds, ‘Handbook of the Economics of Education’, Vol. 1, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 577–633.
- Guglietti, M. (2013), ‘31 dicembre 1962 legge 1859, istituzione e ordinamento della scuola media’, Cisl Scuola.
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Hamad, R., Elser, H., Tran, D. C., Rehkopf, D. H. and Goodman, S. N. (2018), ‘How and why studies disagree about the effects of education on health: A systematic review and meta-analysis of studies of compulsory schooling laws’, Social Science & Medicine 212, 168–178.
Harmon, C., Oosterbeek, H. and Walker, I. (2003), ‘The returns to education: Microeconomics ’, Journal of Economic Surveys 17(2), 115–156.
- Haushofer, J. and Fehr, E. (2014), ‘On the psychology of poverty’, Science 344(6186), 862– 867.
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- Heckman, J. J., Humphries, J. E. and Veramendis, G. (2018), ‘The nonmarket benefits of education and ability’, Journal of Human Capital 12(2), 282–304.
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Hjalmarsson, R., Holmlund, H. and Lindquist, M. J. (2015), ‘The effect of education on criminal convictions and incarceration: Causal evidence from micro-data’, Economic Journal 125(587), 1290–1326.
- Hörner, W., Döbert, H., von Kopp, B. and Mitter, W. (2007), The Education Systems of Europe, 1 edn, Springer, Dordrecht.
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Holmlund, H., Lindahl, M. and Plug, E. (2011), ‘The causal effect of parents’ schooling on children’s schooling: A comparison of estimation methods’, Journal of Economic Literature 49(3), 615–651.
Hoynes, H. W. and Patel, A. J. (2018), ‘Effective policy for reducing poverty and inequality ? The Earned Income Tax Credit and the distribution of income’, Journal of Human Resources 53(4), 859–890.
- Hungary: In 1940, nine years of compulsory schooling were introduced, consisting of eight years of primary education and one year of “general practical economicsâ€Â. WWII rendered it probably impossible to implement this change. In 1945, an eight-grade general primary school was established, which seemed to coincide with the length of compulsory schooling. Legislative Decree No. 15 of 1951 stipulated eight years of uninterrupted compulsory schooling, starting at the age of 6 and lasting until the end of the school year in which a student turns 14. Legislative Decree No. 29 of 1959 formally extended the length of compulsory schooling from 8 to 9 years, while maintaining school starting age at 6.
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- Iceland: The first law introducing four years of compulsory schooling from the age of 10 to 14 was passed in 1907. In 1936, compulsory schooling was extended to seven years between the ages of 7 and 14. In 1946, compulsory schooling was further extended to eight years and the school leaving age raised to 15. The Compulsory School Act (No. 63) of 1974, stipulated nine years of compulsory schooling from the age of 7 to 16. However, the implementation of this provision was postponed and only fully achieved in 1984. The earliest birth cohort affected by this reform is 1968, provided that it applied to those in eighth grade in the 1982/83 school year. The Compulsory School Act (No. 49) of March 27, 1991 extended the length of compulsory schooling from 9 to 10 years, as of the 1991/92 school year. This was achieved by lowering the school starting age from 7 to 6, although parents had the right to enroll their children at the age of 6 already under the 1974 Act.
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- Imbens, G. W. and Angrist, J. D. (1994), ‘Identification and estimation of local average treatment effects’, Econometrica 62(2), 467–475.
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- ing reduced the length of compulsory schooling to eight years again. The earliest birth cohort affected by this reform is 1939, which could stop education after the eighth grade in the 1952/53 school year, provided that the change took effect in the 1953/54 school year.
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- Ireland: The School Attendance Act of 1926 introduced eight years of compulsory schooling between the ages of 6 and 14. On April 12, 1972 a ministerial order modified this act and raised the minimum school leaving age by one year to 15, thereby increasing the length of compulsory schooling from 8 to 9 years. This order came into effect on July 1, 1972. The earliest fully affected birth cohort is 1958, which turned 14 during the course of 1972; among the 1957 cohort most had already turned 15 by the start of the 1972/73 school year. The Education (Welfare) Act of July 5, 2000 raised the minimum school leaving age by another year to 16 or until the completion of three years of post-primary education, whichever is later. The act came into effect two years after its passing on July 5, 2002.
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- It obliged students to start school at the age of 7 and to stay in school until the completion of all seven grades of primary school or until the end of the school year in which they turn 16, whichever is earlier. But it also allowed for a drop-out at age 14 under certain circumstances. The Act on the Development of the Education System of July 15, 1961 established an eight-grade primary school, maintained school starting age at 7, and obliged students to stay in school until the completion of all eight grades of primary school or until the end of the school year in which they turn 16, whichever is earlier. This one-year extension in compulsory schooling was implemented in the 1966/67 school year (Jung-Miklaszewska, 2003; LiwinÃŒÂski, 2018a). The earliest affected birth cohort is 1952, which spent its seventh year in school in the 1965/66 school year. In the 1970s, there were unsuccessful attempts to extend primary school to ten grades, similar to the Soviet model.
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- It raised the minimum school leaving age from 15 to 16, thereby extending compulsory schooling from 10 to 11 years. This provision was enforced as of September 1, 1972. Students born on or after September 1, 1957 were affected by this change (Clark and Royer, 2013). For the purpose of this study, the earliest affected birth cohort is 1958. In England (but not in Wales), the 2008 Education and Skills Act stipulated that students have to stay in education or at least part-time training until the age of 17 (18) as of September 2013 (September 2015). Students born on or after September 1, 1996 (1997) were affected by this change.
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- Jenkins, S. P. (2018), ‘Perspectives on poverty in Europe’, IZA Discussion Paper (No. 12014).
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- Jung-Miklaszewska, J. (2003), The System of Education in the Republic of Poland -Schools and Diplomas (Translated version of: System Edukacji w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Szkoly i dyplomy), Bureau for Academic Recognition and International Exchange, Warsaw.
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Kamhöfer, D. A. and Schmitz, H. (2016), ‘Reanalyzing zero returns to education in Germany ’, Journal of Applied Econometrics 31(5), 912–919.
- Kazamias, A. M. (1978), ‘The politics of educational reform in Greece: Law 309/1976’, Comparative Education Review 22(1), 21–45.
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- Kontogiannopoulos, V. N. (1978), ‘Goals of educational reform policies’, Comparative Education Review 22(1), 3–6.
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- Latvia: In the Republic of Latvia, six years of education starting at the age of 9 were compulsory between 1918 and 1940. In 1940, Latvia came under the rule of the Soviet Union and in 1941 of Nazi Germany before being taken back by the Soviet Union in late 1944. It is not well documented what the consequences for the education system in Latvia have been during WWII. In the Soviet Union, compulsory schooling had been four years in rural areas and seven years in urban areas since 1930, with schooling starting at the age of 7. When the Soviet Union regained control over Latvia in 1944, seven years of compulsory schooling starting at the age of 7 were introduced.62 The Act of December 24, 1958 extended compulsory schooling from 7 to 8 years starting from the 1959/60 school year.
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- LiwinÃŒÂski, J. (2018a), ‘The impact of compulsory education on employment and earnings in a transition economy’, GLO Discussion Paper (No. 193).
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- LiwinÃŒÂski, J. (2018b), ‘The impact of compulsory schooling on earnings: Evidence from the 1999 education reform in Poland’, GLO Discussion Paper (No. 253).
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- Lochner, L. (2011), Nonproduction benefits of education: Crime, health, and good citizenship, in E. A. Hanushek, S. Machin and L. Woessmann, eds, ‘Handbook of the Economics of Education’, Vol. 4, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 183–282.
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Lochner, L. and Moretti, E. (2004), ‘The effect of education on crime: Evidence from prison inmates, arrests, and self-reports’, American Economic Review 94(1), 155–189.
Lundborg, P. and Majlesi, K. (2018), ‘Intergenerational transmission of human capital: Is it a one-way street?’, Journal of Health Economics 57, 206–220.
Lundborg, P., Lyttkens, C. H. and Nystedt, P. (2016), ‘The effect of schooling on mortality: New evidence from 50,000 Swedish twins’, Demography 53(4), 1135–1168.
Lundborg, P., Nilsson, A. and Rooth, D.-O. (2014), ‘Parental education and offspring outcomes: Evidence from the Swedish compulsory school reform’, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 6(1), 253–78.
MaCurdy, T. (2015), ‘How effective is the minimum wage at supporting the poor?’, Journal of Political Economy 123(2), 497–545.
- Madanipour, A., Shucksmith, M. and Talbot, H. (2015), ‘Concepts of poverty and social exclusion in Europe’, Local Economy 30(7), 721–741.
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Malamud, O. and Pop-Eleches, C. (2010), ‘General education versus vocational training: Evidence from an economy in transition’, Review of Economics and Statistics 92(1), 43– 60.
Malamud, O., Mitrut, A. and Pop-Eleches, C. (2018), ‘The effect of education on mortality and health: Evidence from a schooling expansion in Romania’, NBER Working Paper (No. 24341).
- Mani, A., Mullainathan, S., Shafir, E. and Zhao, J. (2013), ‘Poverty impedes cognitive function’, Science 341(6149), 976–980.
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- Mazzonna, F. (2014), ‘The long lasting effects of education on old age health: Evidence of gender differences’, Social Science & Medicine 101, 129–138.
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Meghir, C. and Palme, M. (2003), ‘Ability, parental background and education policy: Empirical evidence from a social experiment’, IFS Working Papers (No. 03/05).
- Meghir, C. and Palme, M. (2005), ‘Educational reform, ability, and family background’, American Economic Review 95(1), 414–424.
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- Meyer, B. D. and Wu, D. (2018), ‘The poverty reduction of social security and meanstested transfers’, ILR Review 71(5), 1106–1153.
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- Ministry of Education, Science and Sport (2001), ‘The development of education: National report of the Republic of Slovenia’, Ministry of Education, Science and Sport, Ljubljana.
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Murtin, F. and Viarengo, M. (2011), ‘The expansion and convergence of compulsory schooling in Western Europe, 1950-2000’, Economica 78(311), 501–522.
- Neumark, D., Asquith, B. J. and Bass, B. (2018), ‘Longer-run effects of anti-poverty policies on disadvantaged neighborhoods’, NBER Working Paper (No. 25231).
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- Nica, I. and Birzea, C. (1973), ‘Educational innovation in European socialist countries: A comparative overview’, International Review of Education / Internationale Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft / Revue Internationale de l’Education 19(4), 447–459.
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- Note that 1971 is also the first year for which the 1970 Act provides an additional budget to cover the extra expenses for the reform’s implementation. The Education Act 1/1990 of October 3, 1990 on the General Organization of the Education System increased the length of compulsory schooling from 8 to 10 years from the age of 6 to 16. It also entailed a new structure of the education system, whose implementation started in the 1991/92 school year and lasted until the 1998/99 school year. According to Felgueroso et al. (2014) and Robles-Zurita (2017), most schools switched to the new system in the 1996/97 school year. This affected the 1982 birth cohort, which was in eighth grade in the 1995/96 school year.
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- obligation if their home was more than 3 km away from the nearest school. The Decree on School Obligations of March 23, 1956 no longer contained this distance-dependent exemption.
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Oosterbeek, H. and Webbink, D. (2007), ‘Wage effects of an extra year of basic vocational education’, Economics of Education Review 26(4), 408–419.
Oreopoulos, P. (2007), ‘Do dropouts drop out too soon? Wealth, health and happiness from compulsory schooling’, Journal of Public Economics 91(11), 2213–2229.
Oreopoulos, P. and Salvanes, K. G. (2011), ‘Priceless: The nonpecuniary benefits of schooling ’, Journal of Economic Perspectives 25(1), 159–184.
Pekkarinen, T. (2008), ‘Gender differences in educational attainment: Evidence on the role of tracking from a Finnish quasi-experiment’, Scandinavian Journal of Economics 110(4), 807–825.
Pischke, J.-S. and von Wachter, T. (2008), ‘Zero returns to compulsory schooling in Germany: Evidence and interpretation’, Review of Economics and Statistics 90(3), 592–598.
- Poland: The Decree on Compulsory Schooling of February 7, 1919 introduced seven years of compulsory schooling starting at the age of 7, but it exempted students from this 65 In terms of educational content, either only the first or both initial grades are sometimes classified as ISCED level 0, but usually as ISCED level 1. 66 According to Aakvik et al. (2010) and Black et al. (2008), the extension from 7 to 9 years of compulsory schooling had already started on a small and exploratory basis in the late 1950s, but applied to a negligible number of students because only three municipalities (of around 750), each with a small number of schools, were involved.
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- Pons, E. and Gonzalo, M. T. (2002), ‘Returns to schooling in Spain: How reliable are instrumental variable estimates?’, LABOUR 16(4), 747–770.
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Robles-Zurita, J. A. (2017), ‘Cognitive skills and the LOGSE reform in Spain: Evidence from PIAAC’, SERIEs 8(4), 401–415.
- Romania: The Primary Education Law of 1924 introduced seven years of compulsory schooling. The Education Act of August 3, 1948 reduced the length of compulsory schooling from 7 to 4 years. The earliest birth cohort affected by this reform is 1935, which could stop education at the end of the sixth grade in the 1947/48 school year, provided that school starting age was 7. This reduction was reversed in the five-year plan of 1956-1960, which extended compulsory schooling from 4 to 7 years. The implementation of this reversal started in the 1956/57 school year and took until the 1961/62 school year.
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Schneeweis, N., Skirbekk, V. and Winter-Ebmer, R. (2014), ‘Does education improve cognitive performance four decades after school completion?’, Demography 51(2), 619– 643.
- school year. The earliest affected birth cohort is 1992, which was in ninth grade in the 2006/07 school year.
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- Slovakia: After WWI, Czechoslovakia introduced eight years of compulsory schooling through the Small School Act of June 1922. The school starting age was six years and remained unchanged in all subsequent reforms. Act No. 95/1948 (passed in April) on the Basic Regulation of Comprehensive Education extended the length of compulsory schooling to nine years. The earliest birth cohort affected by this reform is 1934, provided that the change took effect in the 1948/49 school year, affecting those who were in eighth grade in the 1947/48 school year. Act No. 31/1953 on the Education System and Teacher Train69 There is conflicting information on the year of the extension. Contrary to Hörner et al. (2007), Tomich (1963) and Gabric (2000) cite 1950 and Domovic and Vizek Vidovic (2015) cite 1951.
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- Sommers, B. D. and Oellerich, D. (2013), ‘The poverty-reducing effect of Medicaid’, Journal of Health Economics 32(5), 816–832.
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- Spain: The General Act on Education and Financing of the Educational Reform (Law 14/1970 of August 4, 1970) stipulated that basic education is compulsory and free of charge. Basic education was to last for eight years, starting at the age of 6 and lasting until turning 14. The 1970 Act initiated a complete overhaul of the structure of the education system, which was supposed to be implemented gradually over a period of ten years.
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Staiger, D. and Stock, J. H. (1997), ‘Instrumental variables regression with weak instruments ’, Econometrica 65(3), 557–586.
Stella, L. (2013), ‘Intergenerational transmission of human capital in Europe: Evidence from SHARE’, IZA Journal of European Labor Studies 2(1), 1–24.
- Table B1: Overview of compulsory schooling reforms in Europe Change in ... Country years of compulsory schooling school starting age school leaving age Reform date First birth cohort affected Austria 8 to 9 6 14 to 15 1962 1952 Belgium 8 to 9+3* 6 14 to 18 1983 1968 Bulgaria 7 to 8 7 14 to 15 1959 1946 Bulgaria 8 to 9 7 15 to 16 1969 1958 Croatia 4 to 7 7 11 to 14 1945 1935 Croatia 7 to 8 7 14 to 15 1952 1938 Cyprus 6 to 9 6 12 to 15 1985 1973 Czechia 8 to 9 6 14 to 15 1948 1934 Czechia 9 to 8 6 15 to 14 1953 1939 Czechia 8 to 9 6 14 to 15 1960 1947 Czechia 9 to 10 6 15 to 16 1978 1964 Czechia 10 to 9 6 16 to 15 1990 1975 Denmark 7 to 9 7 14 to 16 1972 1958 Denmark 9 to 10 7 to 6 16 2008 2003 Estonia 7 to 8 7 14 to 15 1958 1945 Estonia 8 to 11 7 15 to 18 1970 1955 Estonia 11 to 9 7 18 to 16 1992 1975 Finland 6 to 9 7 13 to 16 1968 1963 * The additional compulsory years can be completed on a part-time education basis.
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- The amendment of the Primary School Act of June 17, 1972 extended the length of compulsory education from 7 to 9 years, while maintaining school starting age at 7.
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- The earliest birth cohort affected by the reform is thus 1953.
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- The earliest birth cohort affected by this reform is 1945, which was in seventh grade in the 1958/59 school year. Starting in 1970, compulsory secondary education was introduced.
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- The earliest birth cohort affected by this reform is 1985.
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- The earliest fully affected birth cohort is 1987, which turned 15 during the course of 2002; among the 1986 cohort most had already turned 16 by the start of the 2002/03 school year.
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- The Education Act of July 30, 1999 extended compulsory schooling from 8 to 9 years, as of the 1999/2000 school year. The earliest birth cohort affected by this reform is 1985, which still started school at age 6 and was in eighth grade in the 1998/99 school year.
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- The Education Act of June 13, 2003 extended compulsory schooling from 9 to 10 years and lowered school starting age from 7 to 6, as of the 2003/04 school year. The earliest birth cohort affected by the extended length is 1988, which started school at age 6 in 1994 and was in ninth grade in the 2002/03 school year. The earliest birth cohort affected by the lower school starting age is 1997. The Education Act of 2011 extended compulsory schooling from 10 to 11 years by introducing a compulsory preparatory school year at the age of 6 and postponing the start of the first grade until the age of 7, as of the 2012/13 school year. The earliest birth cohort affected by this reform is 2006.
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- The eighth grade became compulsory in the 1972/73 school year and the ninth grade in the 1973/74 school year. The earliest birth cohort affected by this change is 1958, which was in seventh grade in the 1971/72 school year. A new Primary School Act of June 26, 1975 involved another structural change of the primary school by introducing a voluntary kindergarten class (grade zero) followed by nine compulsory grades and a voluntary tenth grade. On May 20, 2008, an amendment of the Primary School Act extended compulsory education from 9 to 10 years, by making attendance of the kindergarten class compulsory.
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- This affected the student cohort born between September 1974 and August 1975. For the purpose of this study, the earliest affected birth cohort is 1975.
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- This affected the student cohort born between September 1974 and August 1975. For the purpose of this study, the earliest affected birth cohort is 1975. After Slovakia’s independence, Act No. 6/1998 of December 17, 1997 amended the 1984 Act again and extended compulsory schooling to ten years. It stipulated that students born before September 1, 1983 could still finish compulsory schooling within nine years. For the purpose of this study, the earliest affected birth cohort by this extension is 1983.
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- This transitional provision affected students born in 1983, who started school at the age of 7 in the 1990/91 school year.
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- Tomich, V. (1963), ‘Education in Yugoslavia and the new reform: The legal basis, organization, administration, and program of the secondary schools’, Office of Education, US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Bulletin, No. 20, OE-14089.
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- United Kingdom - England and Wales: Educational matters in the UK have not been regulated uniformly across the country. In England and Wales, the 1944 Education Act extended compulsory schooling from 9 to 10 years by raising the minimum school leaving age from 14 to 15, while maintaining school starting age at 5. This provision was enforced as of April 1, 1947. Students born on or after April 1, 1933 were affected by this change (Clark and Royer, 2013). On March 22, 1972, the Raising of the School Leaving Age Order 1972, UK Statutory Instruments No. 444, was adopted in England and Wales.
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- United Kingdom - Scotland: The Education (Scotland) Act of 1945 closely mirrored the 1944 Act that applied to England and Wales. It extended compulsory schooling from 9 to 10 years by raising the minimum school leaving age from 14 to 15, while maintaining school starting age at 5. As in England and Wales, this provision was enforced as of April 1, 1947, hence affecting students born on or after April 1, 1933. On January 20, 1972, the Raising of the School Leaving Age (Scotland) Regulations 1972, Statutory Instruments No. 59, was adopted. It raised the minimum school leaving age from 15 to 16, thereby extending compulsory schooling from 10 to 11 years. As in England and Wales, this provision was enforced as of September 1, 1972, hence affecting students born on or after September 1, 1957. For the purpose of this study, the earliest affected birth cohort is 1958. 72 In terms of educational content, all grades starting at the age of four are usually classified as ISCED level 1.
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van Kippersluis, H., O’Donnell, O. and van Doorslaer, E. (2011), ‘Long-run returns to education: Does schooling lead to an extended old age?’, Journal of Human Resources 46(4), 695–721.
- Vieira, J. (1999), ‘Returns to education in Portugal’, Labour Economics 6(4), 535–541.
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Weiss, C. T. (2015), ‘Education and regional mobility in Europe’, Economics of Education Review 49, 129–141.
- XXXIX) of 1974 extended the length of compulsory schooling from 8 to 10 years and raised the school leaving age from 14 to 16. The earliest birth cohort affected by this reform is 1960, provided that the change took effect in the 1974/75 school year, affecting those who were in eighth grade in the 1973/74 school year. The Education Act (No. XXIV) of August 9, 1988 lowered the school starting age by one year to 5 and extended the length of compulsory schooling from 10 to 11 years until the age of 16. The earliest birth cohort affected by this reform is 1983, provided that the change took effect in the 1988/89 school year, affecting children who turned 5 in 1988.
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- ZivojnovicÃŒÂ, P. and Levi, Z. (1959), ‘School reform in Yugoslavia (Yugoslavia’s new education act)’, International Review of Education / Internationale Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft / Revue Internationale de l’Education 5(4), 469–477. Figures and Tables (a) Increases in length of compulsory schooling (b) Decreases in length of compulsory schooling Figure 1: Years of education by birth cohort before and after compulsory schooling reforms Notes: All underlying reforms include at least three pre-reform and post-reform birth cohorts.
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